Burundi. Links between Emergency, Relief and Development Action
A review by the UN Humanitarian Coordinator (1998)
Burundi is once again at a crossroads. In the past such critical junctures have been unrecognized, ignored, or in some cases, deliberately squandered. To ensure that the present opportunity is fully exploited, four key areas require immediate support. Filling the relief-development gap, expanding the boundaries of assistance, supporting efforts for peace, and reinforcing hope and progress.   

The People in Aid Code of Best Practice
The People in Aid Code is an important contribution by British aid agencies to the international debate on standards in humanitarian and long-term development. The organizations that undertook this task include relief and development agencies large and small. In compiling the Code, People in Aid has drawn on the experience and expertise of agencies that are household names as well as those whose profile is lower but whose contribution to the British aid programme is no less important. Development agency field staff confront unique challenges in their day to day work. Recognizing this, the People in Aid Code represents a three-fold commitment: to the quality and effectiveness of aid, to the effective management of aid personnel, and to the protection and well-being of those who work under circumstances that are frequently difficult and dangerous and sometimes, sadly, life-threatening.   

Surviving the Horn.  
The Economist. 1994; 333(19):50. ISSN: 0013-0613. 
Farmers in or near the Horn of African are at the mercy of the whims of world markets and war, foreign charity, bad government, and cruel caprices of nature. In 1994, some 17 million people were deemed at risk of starvation following disastrous rainy seasons in 1993 and early 1994. However, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan, Djibouti, and Somalia all managed to squeak by. Enormous infusions of food were donated and distributed unusually rapidly and were followed by good long rains. Nevertheless, possibly 10,000 Ethiopians, mostly in the south, died of hunger or related diseases before aid reached them in mid 1994. The good rains that came in 1994 have nor removed the fear of another disaster in the Horn, with its increasing population, static agricultural output, and recurrent drought. This concern has triggered soul-searching by relief agencies and the area's most pragmatic leaders. They recognize that preventive action to avoid large-scale emergencies, together with long-term development to break the cycle of disaster, are the only remedies.   

Conflict and Development: Organizational Adaptation in Conflict Situations. 
Adams, M. and Bradbury, M.Oxford: Oxfam with ACCORD, Responding to Conflict, and the University of Birmingham; 1996(Oxfam Working Paper).   

Local NGOs: Linking Relief and Development.  
APRODEV. CSA, India 1996 Oct;
CASA has its headquarters in Delhi, zonal offices in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, plus seven sector offices in various other places. It started working in coastal Andra Pradesh after a cyclone hit the region in 1977 and killed 40,000 people. CASA reacted by supplying clothing and medicines, then entering into contact with the government about rehabilitation measures such as constructing cyclone shelters. Other NGOs provided the region with relief items and some of them built cyclone shelters as well. But most of them left the region soon afterwards.   

International Community's Humanitarian Response to Complex Emergency
Arakaki, S.
This paper summarizes the main findings from the authors earlier study of the provision of humanitarian aid by the international community in response to the Rwanda crisis of April 1994 - July 1995. The study combined a detailed technical assessment of the principal sectors and phases of the response, including research, analysis and evaluation of the events in the Republic of Rwanda during the period as well as their historical and contextual backgrounds and the response by the international community.   

The Roles of DHA and UNDP in Linking Relief and Development.  
Askwith, M. IDS Bulletin. 1995; 25(4). ISSN: 0265 5012.
In an attempt to rationalize the UN system’s capacity to respond rapidly and effectively to emergencies, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs was established in 1992. At the country level, the DHA is in most cases represented and supported by UNDP, thus requiring a close working partnership. This article describes the complementary roles of DHA and UNDP in relation to capacity building for disaster preparedness and mitigation, cooperation in sudden-outset disasters and complex emergency situations, as well as in implementing the concept of linking relief to development. It concludes that in order to make this concept meaningful, fine-tuning of existing tools and practices is required, together with increased attention by donors to increasing resources for longer-term development purposes.   

After the Hurricane: Linking Recovery to Sustainable Development in the Caribbean.
Beatley, T. and Berke, P. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1998 Feb; ISBN: 0801856248. 
In After the Hurricane, the authors present state-of-the-art research on recovery programs that work-programs that provide immediate aid victims and also lay the basis for sustainable development and growth. Drawing on three years of extensive field research on Jamaica, Antigua, Montserrat, and St. Kitts and Nevis, Berke and Beatley offer detailed analysis of the effects of two recent major hurricanes - Gilbert in 1998 and Hugo in 1989. While focusing on post disaster recovery, the authors also explore the opportunities offered by the recovery period for strengthening local institutions to provide long-term social, economic, and physical development. They show how economic aid can be channeled beyond immediate needs to help provide long-term development initiatives. and they suggest ways of rethinking traditional approaches to aid and recovery programs in ways that offer a solid foundation for future growth.   

The Complementarity between Relief and Development in a War Situation: the Case of Eritrea.  
Berhe, Y. (Eritrean Relief & Refugee Commission). London, England: Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Consortium, for Political Emergencies; 2000 Apr (COPE Working Paper; 28). Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. 
This paper will critically assess and document how relief and development can no be looked as disjointed elements that are separate and distinct from each other, taking Eritrea as a case study.    

The Upsurge in Interest in the "Relief-Development Continuum": What Does it Mean? 
Borton, J. RRN Newsletter. 1994.   

NGOs and Relief Operations: Trends and Policy Implications. 
Borton, J.; Nicholds, N.; Benson, C., and Dhiri, S. London: ODI; 1994.

Disaster, Development and the Bretton Wood Institution.  
Boyce, J.1994 (Preparation of guidelines for the continuum relief to development).    

Normalizing the Crisis in Africa. 
Bradbury, M. Journal of Humanitarian Assistance.  1998 Feb 4. 
The critique of conventional relief strategies in complex political emergencies is well developed. This critique, however, has not been accompanied by an analysis of the effectiveness of development aid on conflict management and reduction. Having participated over the past 18 months in a number of reviews, evaluations and studies for UN agencies and NGOs in Sudan, Somalia, Rwanda and Uganda, for me, the need for this is clear. What I want to do in this paper is to dissect what Joanna Macrae 91998) has called the "develop mentalist attack" on humanitarian principles by looking at developmental approaches to humanitarian relief which have gained currency in aid policy and in aid practice. The paper seeks to highlight two things:
- the shortcomings in applying developmental relief models and strategies in complex political emergencies;
- and the negative impact that such developmental approaches to relief can have on the rights, welfare and livelihoods of populations in distress.   

Relief as Development, but Development as Relief.
Brandt, D. Journal of Humanitarian Assistance. 1997 Jul 4.   

Using Rehabilitation to Bridge the Institutional Gap Between Relief and Development. 
Brigaldino, G. Maastricht: ECDPM; 1995(ECDPM Working Paper; 95-4). 
This paper explores how the concept of rehabilitation, as applied in the aid sector, can be made more effective in reducing the gap between relief and development. The principle argument is that maintaining sharp distinctions between relief and development aid approaches is non-conducive to both development aid and humanitarian aid. This separation, instead of assisting societies in crisis, reduces their chances to attain sustainable livelihoods and it does little to address the underlying problems that they face.   

The Development Dimensions of Crisis and Recovery.  
Brown, M., Administrator (United Nations Development Programme). Economic and social council substantive session. 
Abstract: I am honored to address the second Humanitarian Segment of ECOSOC. Last year's Humanitarian Segment - the first of its kind - recognized the "the phases of relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and development are generally not consecutive but often overlap and occur simultaneously" and enjoined us to develop comprehensive approaches to countries in and emerging from crisis.

The need for such comprehensive approaches was starkly brought home in recent months in two distinct areas of support by the United Nations systems. In the Caribbean and Central America, the devastation wrought by hurricanes George and Mitch underscored, with tragic force, the development dimensions of natural crises. In Southeast Europe, the repercussions of appalling ethnic cleansing, repression and war continue and serve as reminders of the urgency of including reconciliation, reconstruction and development together with international relief efforts in a common strategy to rebuild the human as well as physical bonds of this community.   

Linking Relief and Development: an Introduction and an Overview.
Buchanan-Smith, M. and Maxwell, S. IDS Bulletin. 1994; 24.   

Linking Relief and Development: a Case Study of Botswana. 
Buchanan-Smith, M. and Tlogelang, G. IDS Bulletin. 1995; 25(4). ISSN: 0265 5012. 
During the prolonged drought in Botswana in the 1980s, the government launched a large-scale drought relief programme (DRP). It successfully prevented famine, but its performance in terms of linking relief and development was mixed. Institutionally, Botswana succeeded in integrating the administration of the DRP into existing government structures. The DRP attempted to meet both welfare needs and long term development goals. It met the first objective most successfully by expanding the existing welfare systems. The second objective was harder to achieve: on the public works programme, relief and development objectives sometimes conflicted; and the design of some components of the agricultural programme proved to be at odds with longer term development interests. The DRP also masked underlying structural problems of rural poverty. Although Botswana is a "special case", lessons can be learned from its experience for other African countries.   

From Relief and Development to Assisted Self-Reliance: Nongovernmental Organizations in Bangladesh.
Buckland, J. The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance. 1998 Aug 8. 
By definition, virtually all development interventions contain a welfare element. This welfare element involves the subsidized provision to a marginalized group of community by an external agency, physical, human, and/or social capital. Where marginalization is compounded be some type of natural disaster or civil conflict, the welfare element is justifiably high. Where impoverishment is less acute and more chronic, it is generally held that the welfare element should be minimized to avoid dependency and attack underlying structural constraints. However, it is clear that even mature southern nongovernmental organization's development interventions involve some welfare element. Indeed, the widely adopted micro-credit approach generally requires some external subsidy. As a distinction between relief and development intervention becomes blurred, a more helpful way to type responses to impoverishment is needed.   

The Catalytic Role of PRODERE in Linking Relief and Development: an Innovative Strategic Approach to Economic Reconstruction. 
Catenacci, L. Brighton: IDS, University of Sussex; 1995. 
The practical experience of the PRODERE program in Central America has been a laboratory to implement local mechanisms for rehabilitation in a complex emergency scenario. This program embodies the conceptual framework of LRD, which refers to a flexible process able to analyze, identify and alleviate the causes behind complex emergencies. The report firstly analyzes the needed link between complex emergencies and a LRD response. PRODERE's coordinated approach, design flexibility, and decentralized framework are all elements contribution to PRODERE's success in LRD. Highlighting the UNDP's continuum approach leads to a discussion of PRODERE's methodological strengths in LRD. An assessment of the effectiveness of PRODERE's catalytic role in bridging sectoral intervention into a more integrated framework is offered. Following this the strategies tolls implemented by PRODERE to support national reconciliation, facilitate local community involvement in the formulation of projects, and promote pre-active institutional changes in a war-torn society, are addressed. Finally the concepts of sustainability and replicability of PRODERE's intervention are analyzed.  

Linking Relief and Development Aid in Ethiopia  
Centre for Development Research.1999 Oct;
More than five million people in Ethiopia are currently facing problems of hunger and starvation. Combined with the country's long history of food security problems, this illustrates the need for extraordinary development-orientated interventions. In 1997, the Joint Ehtio-Danish Development Programme was launched in North Wollo, an area which continues to suffer from vulnerability to famine. CDR has been engaged to study whether this Programme has an impact on the food insecurity problems in the area.   

Building a Better Future in Africa 
Clinton, W.; Gore, A.; Christopher, W.; Lake, A.; Atwood, B., and Moose, G. Washington, D.C. White House Conference on Africa. 
Abstract: Remarks by President Clinton, Vice President Gore, Secretary Christopher, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs Anthony Lake, USAID Administrator Brian Atwood, and Assistant Secretary for African Affairs George E. Moose at the White House Conference on Africa.   

New Directions in Emergency Response
Community Aid Abroad.
In 1996 Community Aid Abroad introduced a regular program of reviews of the major regional and functional areas of the agency's Overseas and Indigenous Australia program. It is expected these Reviews will be conducted as a five-year rolling program and will set the strategic direction for that part of the program. The outcomes of the reviews will also "feed-up" and inform the strategic planning process of the agency more broadly and provide a opportunity for it to be informed by our field work in a more formal way. The first of this program of reviews was carried out in 1997 for the Emergencies Response work of the agency. This arose as the Emergencies Desk had only recently been established but there were still issues around method or operation to be finalized so it was thought that a review of the pervious work and what other agencies were doing might inform the direction the agency should take. This report is a summary of that Review process and its outcomes.  

The Demand for Food & Conditions Governing Food Aid During Development.  
Dandekar, V.  Bernan Associates; 1965(World Food Programme Studies, No. 1).   

Complex Emergencies and the Crisis of Developmentalism. 
Duffield, M. IDS Bulletin. 1994; 25(3). 
Using complex emergencies and the humanitarian response to them as its point of reference, this paper provides a critique of relief, development and the linking debate.   

The Oxfam Handbook of Development and Relief,  
Vols 1-3. England: Oxford; 1995.   

Relief and Rehabilitation Work in Mozambique: Institutional Capacity and NGO Executional Strategies. Eagen, E. Development in Practice. 1991; 3:174-84.   

ECHO.  
Observations presented pursuant to Article 188c (4), second subparagraph. of the Treaty establishing the European Community concerning humanitarian aid from the European Union between 1992 and 1995 together with the Commission's replies. 1997(Special Report; 2/97). 
Chapter 1. Introduction. Chapter 2. The community's approach to humanitarian aid. Chapter 3. Mobilization of humanitarian aid by the Commission. Chapter 4. ECHO's organization and working practices. Chapter 5. Evaluation of the aid. Chapter 6. Overall conclusion.   

Women; Violence; Psychological Aspects. 
El Bushra, J. and Mukarubuga, C. Gender and Development. 1995 Oct; 3(3). 
This article looks at the particular stresses faced by women in post-conflict circumstances, with a focus on their role as shields of family and community in times of turbulent change, and the consequent implications of such burdens for these environments. It proceeds with an evaluation of the psycho-social parameters of armed conflict and its aftermath, and further details Rwandan woman's experience in this regard. This is followed by an exploration of international relief and development agencies in light of these considerations, and how this may be translated into support through the fundamental incorporation of woman's values and capacities in organizational programmes and approaches.  

Report on the Humanitarian Aid of the European Union and the Role of ECHO, and on the Communication from the Commission on Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development (COM(96)0153-C4-0265/96).
Fassa, R., Rapporteur (Committee on Development and Cooperation). 1997 Jan 28(Epades Report; a4-0021).  

Economic Aspects of the Relief-Rehabilitation-Development Continuum and External Assistance. FitzGerald, E. and Mavortas, G. 1994.

Recovering from Conflict: Strategy for an international response.
Forman, S.; Patrick, S., and Salomons, D. New York: Center on International Cooperation, New York University (Paying for essentials, a policy paper series). 
PREFACE: During the 1990s the international donor community pledged more than one hundred billion dollars in aid to three dozen countries recovering from violent conflict. From Cambodia to Bosnia, El Salvador to Rwanda, and Tajikistan to Lebanon, multilateral and bilateral donors have supported conflict resolution and peace building with generous packages of grants, low-interest loans, debt forgiveness and technical assistance. Providing a bridge between emergency humanitarian relief and long-term development, these financial and material resources are designed to persuade formerly warring parties to resolve conflicts peacefully and intended to lay the foundations for a sustainable transition to economic growth and participatory governance.   

Refugee Aid and Development.  
Gorman, R. Greenwood Publishing Group; 1993; ISBN: 0313285802. 
The expert study shows how refugee aid and development enterprise should be linked in order to truly help the 16 million refugees today, the tens of millions of displaced persons, and the hundreds of millions affected by the presence of uprooted people. Practitioners and scholars evaluate contemporary programs in Africa, Central America, and Asia. They analyze current theories and policies governing refugee aid and development operations. Students, teachers, and professionals concerned about growing welfare problems in the world will benefit from this overview and from the empirical and theoretical perspectives that are provided.   

Rehabilitation, Sustainable Peace and Development: toward Reconceptualisation. 
Green, R. and Ahmed, I. (Institute of Development Studies). Sussex: COPE, IDS, University of Sussex; 1998 Jul (COPE working paper; 4). 
Cessation of hostilities or at least the ebbing of widespread armed conflict provides as opportunity for war-torn peoples and countries to rebuild their societies, economies, polities and to start reforms and restructuring. In recent years as an increasing proportion of aid is spent on emergencies related programs there has been a growing interest in the rehabilitation of societies emerging from war. While the nature and the extent of devastation faced by war-torn societies vary, they all face common issues concerning the macro-economic management of reconstruction, alternative routes to livelihood rehabilitation, resettlement and reintegration of ex-combatants and the role of different aid instruments, including food and financial aid. Yet there is very little understanding of how conflict-affected societies should be helped to rebuild their countries - socially, politically and economically - or in fact exactly what should be perceived as strategic rehabilitation and reconstruction in the aftermath of complex political emergencies (CPEs). This is partly because the concept of rehabilitation we have is rooted in natural disasters, though rehabilitation in war-torn societies often has very little in common with rehabilitation and reconstruction after natural disasters such as droughts, floods and earthquakes.   

ODA's Approach to Linking Relief and Development.
Holden, P. IDS Bulletin. 1995; 25(4). ISSN: 0265 5012. 
The UK Overseas Development Administration is currently grappling with the issue of how to operationalize the links between humanitarian aid and development within the aid programme. The ODA's Emergency Aid Department (EMAD) is now increasingly working on a collaborative basis with the relevant geographical desks and is utilizing more fully ODA's specialist advisors in its emergency programmes. There is also recognition that elements of risk and vulnerability need to be considered more carefully in the development programme and that disaster preparedness should be seen as an integral part of development rather than as a separate activity.   

Humanitarian Practice Network. The Future of EU Humanitarian Aid 
1999 Mar

Confronting Famine in Africa.
Institute of Development Studies. IDS Briefs. 1995 Apr; 3.
Famine poses a continuing threat to many of the poorest countries in Africa. There is much that can be done, however, to reduce the risk of famine, and limit the damage done. Speeding up the response to famine early warning signals is vital. Even when famine has gained hold, measures can be taken to help people survive the crisis, and rebuild their lives afterwards. Relief operations need to be much better integrated with long-term development. But with war now a major factor behind famine in Africa, more concerted peace making efforts are also essential if the specter of famine is to be confronted.   

Linking Relief and Development: the Federation Perspective.  
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies; 1994 Jul (Humanitarian advocacy papers and presentations).
In 1993 the Federation spent over US$270 million on international relief. If we are honest in our appraisal of our work, we admit that the vast majority of their money was spent on programmes, which should really be termed rehabilitation, post-relief recovery, development or some such terminology. Relief is really about providing very basic life-supporting needs: sufficient food, water, shelter, medical care and protection from violence to keep body and soul together, yet most of our assistance programmes go way beyond this, often providing long term welfare support and assistance while strengthening local organizations. Rehabilitation, in Federation parlance refers to the actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, to assist victim's self-help efforts to repair physical damage and community facilities, the revive economic activities and provide support for the psychological and social well being of the survivors. Whilst it initially focuses on enabling the affects population to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life it should always strive to reduce vulnerability and create an improvement in living standards. An easy definition to put into a policy, but no so easy to put into action.   

ILO/UNHCR Technical Workshop: Micro-Finance in Post-Conflict Countries; 
International Labour Organization. Virtual conference. Discussion paper.
Risk has been an inherent part of financial transactions. The frontier of finance, nonetheless, has now been pushed to incorporate systematic risks due to conflicts. Finance in unstable conditions is an evolving field. While micro-finance is not expected to end conflicts or considered as a primary vehicle for peace building, it is now advocated in the wake of conflicts in an anticipation to jump-start the crippled economy. Micro enterprises thrive during conflicts and become more active after the conflicts since self-employment is especially important doe income generation in such situations. The microentrepreneurs generally lack adequate resources to expand their businesses. Therefore, provision of microfinance is considered important. Microfinance, however, is only one tool amongst others that contribute towards economic development.    

Preventing Crises Becoming Disasters.  
Kent, R. and Mackinlay, J. The World Today. 1997; 53:175-7. ISSN: 0043-9134. 
Kofi Annan, secretary-general of the UN, is likely to propose at least three key innovations to improve the humanitarian response system. Previous reform attempts have been disappointing, but changes should be introduced to address some of the central problems reflected in these efforts. The first innovation is the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs, which is one of four cabinet-type committees of senior UN staff that will report directly to the secretary-general on humanitarian issues and will ensure that decisions on humanitarian issues will incorporate the agreements and views of the UN's peacekeeping and political departments as well as UN development and relief agencies. The second proposal will be to place humanitarian response coordination directly into the control of relief practitioners. The third proposed innovation is a new arrangement designed to ensure that member states and humanitarian organizations work together more efficiently on a sectoral rather than an institutional level.    

Rebuilding Societies after Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance.  
Kumar, K. Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner; 1997.

Mission to Colombia with a View to Develop Best Practices in Response to International Displacement. 
Kunder, J. and Nylund, B. (Humanitarian Principles Office of Emergency Programmes, UNICEF). New York: UNICEF; 1998. 
1. Overview of the situation. 1.1 General., 1.2 Situation of and programming for children in Colombia., 1.3 The mission to Colombia., 2. Examples of sound field practice relating to internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Colombia.   

Mission to Sri Lanka with a View to Develop Humanitarian Principles Office of Emergency Programmes
UNICEF New York: 2000  
1. Overview of the situation. 1.1 General., 1.2 Situation of children., 1.3 The mission to Sri Lanka., 2. UNICEF "best practices" meeting the needs of IDPs., 2.1 Activities with a direct or indirect protection impact., 2.2 Activities related to basic needs other than protection., 2.3 Activities in the field of advocacy., 3. Best practices developed and/or supported by organizations other than UNICEF., 3.1 Activities with a direct or indirect protection impact., 3.2 Activities related to basic needs other than protection., 3.3 Activities in the field of advocacy., 4. Major IDP issues facing the international community in Sri Lanka.   

Coping with Crisis, Coping with Aid: Capacity Building, Coping Mechanisms and Dependency, Linking Relief and Development. 
Lautze, S. and Hammock, J. (Department of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations). United Nations; 1997.

Developmental Relief? An Issues Paper and an Annotated Bibliography on Linking Relief and Development.
Lindahl, C.Stockholm: SIDA; 1996.
This report, prepared on behalf of Sida, was originally to serve as an input to a planned thematic study of emergency assistance in response to complex disasters, that is, disasters with multiple socio-economic, political, and ethnic causes. Its purpose is to review the issues concerning developmental disaster relief or linking disaster relief with development, often described as LRD, and current thinking on them. The report is based on a review of current literature, including policy and strategy papers by major relief and development agencies. This study attempts to identify major trends in the LRD debate by focusing on those studies which have influenced much of the thinking on the subject. In addition to assessing the state of the debate in academia, the study draws on the current views of key players in disaster relief operations including the United Nations, the IFCR, the European Union (EU), leading bilateral donors and NGOs. the Swedish debate is also reviewed. Part II of the report contains an annotated bibliography on some key documents.   

Conceptual Frameworks for Linking Relief and Development. 
Longhurst, R.  IDS Bulletin. 1995; 25(4). ISSN: 0265 5012.
Linking relief and development is an intensely practical and political matter. A conceptual framework is essential for assessing the causes of the crisis and deciding what to do. But there are many different proposals and terms often meaning much the same thing. The most important element is to identify that affected people have passed a threshold of disempowerment where their responses to the crisis become significantly different. "Relief" rather than "development" activities are often required. The frameworks are helpful to identify what types of people experience shocks and in what types of crisis and to point out the means of recovery.   

Nutrition and Care of Young Children during Emergencies. 
Emergencies are not only sudden events with natural causes that can be ameliorated with resources from outside. The causes and consequences of emergencies with sudden or slow onset, that are complex and involve conflict, or are permanent emergencies are all deeply rooted in the vulnerability of people to hazards and their incapacity to recover. This will have implications for care behaviors and practices in the feeding, health, hygiene, and psychosocial areas. Families react to slow-onset emergencies by managing a declining resource with inevitable negative impacts on child care. Food intake declines. At the extreme of destitution, families may migrate to refugee camps where children face health crises as large displaced populations congregate around contaminated water sources. Breastfeeding may ease. In war situations, children face extreme psychosocial stresses. The importance of care for young children is given insufficient attention by those providing assistance from outside. Care interventions should improve the effectiveness of health, food, and psychosocial support.

Relief as Development, but Development as Relief. 
Luxen, J-P.Brussels: European Commission (Health and Development series).   

Aiding an Unstable World: Some Thoughts on Relief and Development Assistance after the Cold War.  
Macrae, J. 1997 Feb.  

Conflict, the Continuum and Chronic Emergencies: A Critical Analysis of the Scope for Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development Planning in Sudan. 
(Department of International Development, London).1996 Dec.   

New Issues in Refugee Research. Aiding Peace and War: UNHCR, Returnee Reintegration and the Relief-Development Debate.  
(Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute). London: UNHCR; 1999 Dec (UNHCR Working Paper; 14). Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute. Portland House. Stag Place, London SW1E 5DP. United Kingdom
This paper seeks to situate UNHCR's evolving policy with regard to reintegration in the context of wider debates on relief-development aid linkages, and of broader changes in international relations in the post-Cold War era. It is based on an analysis of the UNHCP's policy approach to the issue of reintegration, as reflected in the decisions of the Executive Committee, global policy initiatives and guidelines. It is an analysis of the ideas that shape the organization's identity and practice, not an evaluation of operation.

Tackling Transition: A Critical Analysis of Relief-Development Linkages in Situations of Chronic Instability for UNICEF  
Macrea, J. and Bradbury, M. (Brown University). humanitarianism and War project at Brown University. London: ODI.   

Operational Challenges in Post-Conflict Societies:
Management Systems International, Inc.; 
USAID. Bureau for Humanitarian Response. , and Ofc. of Transition Initiatives.1997.
Providing assistance in the reconstruction and rehabilitation of countries emerging from war or ethnic conflict is increasingly required of donor agencies. In October 1997, USAID's Office of Transition Initiatives held the first workshop that allowed representatives of transition offices of development agencies from other countries, the United Nations, the World Bank, and the European Community to discuss their work in the field. This report documents the sessions of that workshop, which covered security, country selection, program development, project implementation, exit strategies, and coordination with other donors. (1) First analyze the situation -- especially the cause of the conflict, host country commitment to its resolution, the security environment, the extent of local grievances, and local capacity for leadership and recovery -- and then develop objectives for the intervention, along with means of persuasion, coercion, or enforcement when the going gets tough. (2) Take account of the diplomatic situation and enlist the support of neighboring countries. (3) Pay attention to the relative importance of different actors. In particular, do not underestimate local and national actors and the private sector. (4) Do not adhere to rigid distinctions between relief and development. In the field, they overlap considerably. (5) Do not neglect the importance of consensus building. In post-conflict settings, governments may become more authoritarian because they are insecure. Donors must work to develop room for dialogue and also make sure that the closers in the conflict benefit from its peaceful resolution

Food from Peace: Breaking the Links between Conflict and Hunger. 
Messer, E.; Cohen, M., and D'Costa, J. 2020 Brief. 1998 Jun; 50. 
Creating a hunger-free world in the 21st century will require prevention and resolution of violent conflicts, as well as a concerted effort to rebuild war-torn societies. Between 1970 and 1990 violent conflicts led to hunger and reduced food production and economic growth in 43 developing countries. The reverse is also true, however: hunger and lack of access to basic necessities often lie at the root of violent conflicts

Intervening in Complex Emergencies, a Survey of UK NGO Perceptions.
O'Brien, N. (ACCORD). London, England: Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Consortium for Political Emergencies; 1997 Nov (COPE working paper; 1). Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
The hope and optimism that the end of the Cold War and of super-power rivalry would usher in an era of peace and prosperity has unfortunately been met with disappointment. Instead, radical economic and social change alongside undemocratic of complacent governments have provided a breeding ground for violence and human rights abuses and in some cases the collapse of state structures. Given the protracted nature of many conflict situations the impact on people has been catastrophic in terms of famine, displacement, social violence, loss of civilian life, ecological damage, depleted resources and the emergence of an increasing number of vulnerable groups in the population. These situations normally prompt a response by international non-governmental organizations throughout the world and it has been widely documented that the context of an increasing proportion of humanitarian emergency operations are radically different from what has been previously experienced.

From Humanitarian Relief to Rehabilitation: a Comprehensive Response. 
Ogata, S. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Keynote address; Sophia University. Refworld Speeches of the High Commissioner.
Emergency relief is a wide-ranging term, and could cover varied situations from the earthquake in Kobe to the refugee influx in Kenya, from helping flood victims in Bangladesh to helping war victims in Bosnia. In order to better focus our discussion and bring it closer to the expertise of my Office, I will address the topic from the perspective, not of natural disasters, but of man-made disasters, in other words humanitarian and refugee emergencies.

Improving the Effectiveness of Humanitarian and Transition Programs.  
Overseas Development Council. Summary of proceedings.
The workshop on "Improving the Effectiveness of Humanitarian and Transition Programs" was held at the request of an interagency core group-Department of State, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and National Security Council-that is presently reviewing the United States' civilian humanitarian emergency programs, at the instruction of Secretary of State Albright. The core group has at several points reached out to major policy and research institutions to assist in informing the review. The ODC workshop concentrated on the linking of relief , transition, and sustainable development programs and the implications, from a congressional perspective, of the possible consolidation of the U.S. government's humanitarian and post-conflict transition programs. There are other related issues that are not being addressed in this evaluation, such as the declining funding levels for sustainable development programs, the inadequacy or absence of crisis prevention mechanisms, and the authority of the Treasury Department over multilateral financial assistance. Even so, the study may lead to some improvement in the performance of U.S. agencies.

Humanitarian Policy Group Report
Overseas Development Institute. Annual report 1997/98 http://www.odi.org.uk/.
Progress in this area depends on learning from diverse and difficult experiences on the ground - in places like South Sudan, Liberia, Rwanda and Afghanistan. HPG promotes an ever-closer symbiosis between practitioners, policy-makers and researchers. This "one-programme" approach sets research alongside new ways of working internationally - illustrated by the rapid growth of the Relief and Rehabilitation Network, and the establishment of ALNAP - The Active Learning Network on Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Assistance.   

Responding to Emergencies and Fostering Development: The Dilemmas of Humanitarian Aid.
Pirotte, C.; Husson, B., and Grunewald, F.  Zed Books; 1999; ISBN: 1856497542.     

Living with the Unexpected: Linking Disaster Recovery to Sustainable Development in Montserrat. 
Possekel, A.  Springer Verlag; 1999 Jul; ISBN: 3540657096.
This study deals with complexity and uncertainty, thereby focusing on appropriate methods which enable vulnerable communities to cope effectively with natural hazards and disasters. The central goal of the study is an applicable combination of hazard management and development planning. Therefore, the reconstruction process following a disaster is understood as an opportunity for structural changes and self-organization processes that can foster sustainable development. In this context the potential of scenario planning as an evolutionary and participatory learning approach is addressed. The empirical research concentrates on the time before and during the volcanic crisis on the Caribbean island Montserrat. Particular methods used are a systematic analysis of case study, more then 200 interviews with stakeholders and citizens - concentrating on resource and hazard perception - as well as the organization and execution of various scenario workshops

The Humanitarian Trap.
Rieff, D. World Policy Journal. 1995; 12:1-11. ISSN: 0740-2775.
Humanitarian action, which most people take to mean relief to suffering populations after a natural disaster or during disasters of human design, is one of the few aspects of the international system that still seems to be functioning as it was meant to. Unlike development, which presupposes that societies can be made to work and economic levels be made to rise, humanitarianism begins with at least a partial admission of failure and does what is can for the victims. However, humanitarianism today, like peacekeeping five years ago, is being called on to try an accomplish things that it is neither empowered nor qualified to do, and attempts are being made to use it in ways that were never intended -- most importantly as a substitute for Western political engagement.

Eritrea: Relief and Rehabilitation during the Liberation Struggle and Post-Conflict Recovery and Reconstruction.  
Rock, J. (University of Leeds).London, England: Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Consortium for Political Emergencies; 2000 Apr(COPE Working Paper; 30). Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2, 9JT, UK. 
This paper seeks to build on earlier work on Eritrea for the COPE project which explored the roots of that conflict. The focus of this paper is COPE's second and third themes. The paper is divided into two parts: Part 1 explores effects of CPE in Eritrea and the experience of relief and rehabilitation up to 1991 (COPE's second theme: Effects of CPE's and interventions as the local level). Part 2 examines Ertitra's experiences in post-conflict reconstruction and development and explores the roles of the state, international agencies and the private sector 9COPE's third theme: Rehabilitation, development and sustainable peace).   

Linking Relief and Development
Ross, J., Maxwell, S., and Buchanan-Smith, M.IDS report on a workshop. Sussex: IDS; 1994.   

When Relief and Development Programmes Meet: A Case-Study from the Lesotho Red Cross. 
Sanger, D. and Adamson, M. Development in Practice. 1997 Feb; 7(1). 
An article looking at the environmental protection programme of the Lesotho Red Cross.

Save the Children, Programmes Department. Global policy on Emergencies.  
Save the Children; 1999 Jul.
Save the Children is a rights based relief and development organization concerned with the plight of children. Its origins were based on an emergency relief programme as a consequence of the First World War. The first international declaration of children's rights, drafted by Eglantyne Jebb in 1923, asserted that the child must be first to receive relief in times of distress. Ever since, the organization has had a clear mandate to respond to the needs of children in emergencies.   

Relief and Development: The Struggle for Synergy. 
Smillie, I. Providence, RI: The Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies; 1998(Occasional Paper; 33). Brown University, Box 1970. 2 Stimson Avenue. Providence, RI 02912. 
In keeping with the purposes of the Humanitarianism & War Project, this monograph approaches the relationships between relief and development less as a matter of theory than as a challenge to effective programming. It examines the origins and evolution of the idea of a continuum, including the now widely acknowledged limitations of the construct. Taking as an objective the need for aid practitioners to capitalize on the development potential in emergency relief situations, it examines recurring obstacles in the struggle to unleash synergy. Rather than proposing an alternative paradigm, it identifies what, in the experience of practitioners, has and has not proved effective in maximizing mutually reinforcing interactions.   

The Relief-Development Continuum: Some Notes on Rethinking for Civilian Victims of Conflict.  
Sollis, P. Journal of International Affairs. 1994 Winter; 47:451-71. ISSN: 022-197X. 
Part of a special issue on refugees and international population flows. There is an increasing realization that the dichotomous approach to relief and development is flowed. Disaster practitioners are coming to recognize that relief efforts affect long-term development and that development interventions affect a country's propensity for disaster. Development with refugees and the displaced is made more difficult by political matters and by the location and characteristics of the affected peoples. It is important that the poor are afforded the opportunity to participate in the formulation and implementation of development projects. In addition, a failure to distinguish between poverty and vulnerability when formulating policy means that the port remain an undifferentiated mass.

Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development  
The European Commission. Collection. 1996 Apr 30; 2(06/95 - 11/97). 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. Background, conclusions and recommendations. 1. How can relief actions take better account of development requirements/objectives: development aspects of emergency operations. 2. Rehabilitation - post crisis assistance. 3. How can development actions take better account of the risk of emergencies: emergency aspects of development operations. 4. Man-made emergencies: a political approach.   

Achieving Sustainable Development through Self-Employment in Sierra Leone 
Trickle Up Program, Inc. : 
Building economic stability among internally displaced people and returnees through micro-enterprise.   

Advancing Peaceful, Democratic Change. 
U.S. Agency for International Development. 
The course of global events since the waning of the Cold War has challenged traditional notions of foreign assistance. Development resources were once channeled without reference to the international politics of a country, concentrating instead on improving standards of living through projects in agriculture productions, infrastructure improvement, education, health, and microenterprise. It has become increasingly clear that this strategy is no longer viable.   

The Relief to Development Continuum.  
UN/CCPOQ. New York: United Nations; 1995. 
The 1995 document is a collection of informal papers by UNHCR, WFP, UNDP, and ACC representatives on the relationship between relief and development activities, aimed at facilitating more focused deliberation by the Consultative Committee on Programme and Operational Questions with respect to the coordination of humanitarian assistance, consolidated inter-agency appeals for emergency relief and post-conflict reconstruction. The first contribution, from UNHCR, explores the concept of a continuum from relief to development and its application to inter-agency cooperation; that of the WFP examines the role of food aid in linking and development, with particular regard to types of emergencies; while UNDP assesses its involvement in "continuum" activity, illustrated by concrete programme experience. the final paper by the Administrative Committee on Coordination presents the conclusions of its first regular session, noting the importance of humanitarian diplomacy, disaster preparedness and management, the need for a media strategy, as well as enhanced security for humanitarian personnel.   

Building Bridges between Relief and Development
UNDP 
A. Development and Crisis: A Continuing Challenge
                i. The new focus: prevention and post-conflict transition
                ii. Tackling the root causes
                iii. Guiding principles
                iv. Resource use overview
                v. Mobilizing more resources
             B. Working for durable solutions to crisis
                i. Framing strategies for recovery
                ii. Special development initiatives
                iii. Responding to sudden emergencies
                iv. Building national capacity
               C. Signposts for post-crisis action   

The Link between Relief and Development. 
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian affairs. Humanitarian Report 1997. 
General Assembly resolution 46/182 give an explicit directive that emergency assistance must be provided in ways that will support recovery and long-term development. The resolution clearly recognized the need to establish a strong ling between relief and development activities within the assistance community and, in particular, within the United Nations system. It charges the ERC to help orient the interventions of the humanitarian relief community towards longer-term development objectives.   

The Greater Horn of Africa Initiative. 
United States Agency for International Development. 1998(The USAID FY 1998 Congressional Presentation). 
The aim of GHAI is very ambitious: to change the way the USG operates in the region, as well as the way our partners operate. Within the USG progress is being made. We have begun to systematically analyze and eliminate the barriers within USAID that prevented development and relief professionals from working together as well as they could have. The Agency is also forging a stronger relationship with the Department of State to better link diplomacy with development. In Africa, the new approaches of GHAI are producing results.   

United States Agency for International Development.  
International disaster assistance
The international disaster assistance program of the United States provides relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction assistance to victims of natural and manmade disasters. The Fy 1997 budget request for the program is $190m. These resources are used to respond to emergency relief needs and for disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness activities. They will finance activities of the Office of Transition Initiatives, begun in 1994, which focuses on the special needs of countries emerging from crises caused by political and ethnic conflict.   

The Role of Foreign Assistance in Conflict Prevention. 
USAID, Washington: 2000
Session I: The rationale for change and a vision for the future. Session II: The new paradigm on the role of foreign assistance and U.S. priorities in the post-cold war millennium: re-defining U.S. needs and understanding the role of development assistance in conflict prevention. Session III: Addressing the root causes of conflict and building the basis for cooperative order and free societies. Session IV: Coordinating a more effective conflict prevention and crises response capacity within the U.S. government. Session V: The challenge for development assistance: how we work in an increasingly unstable world of pre- and post-conflict transitions. Session VI: Emerging threats: new dimensions of instability and violent conflict and a more integrated prevention response capacity. Conclusions: Defining a vision for U.S. national security needs and foreign policy framework for the year 2020 & creating a supporting foreign assistance strategy.   

USAID and Tulane University. CERTI: Linking Complex Emergency Response and Transition Initiative 
The "Complex Emergency Response and Transition Initiative (CERTI)" is an interagency initiative funded in part by USAID. This initiative addresses the challenges of programming international assistance to achieve health security within the context of increasingly frequent and severe conflict-related crisis (complex emergencies) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).   

Health Care between War and Peace an Exploration of Issues and Strategies 
Van der Heijden, T. Jun 15, 1997 
HealthNet International, working on health care in post-conflict situations in low-income countries, has expressed a wish to have a better policy framework, as neither conventional relief nor development policies seem to fully apply to these situations. This paper explores various issues from the literature, looks as HealthNet International’s experience and provides some suggestions how these issues can contribute to HealthNet International's policy formulation.   

Assessing the Impact of the Rwandan Refugee Crisis on Development Planning in Rural Tanzania,
Waters, T.   1994-1996. Human Organization. 1999 Summer; 58(2):142-52. ISSN: 0018-7259. 
It is generally recognized that refugee movements are related to development policy in the world's poorest countries. In particular, solutions to refugee crises are regarded as rooted in the reintegration of refugees voluntarily into their own societies or that of a host country. For these reasons, efforts at refugee resettlement and integration became closely tied to development assistance programs in the 1980's. However, the situation changed with the Rwandan refugee crisis of 1994-1996. Explicit relief policies emerged separating refugee relief from development assistance programs.

Conflict, Relief and Development: Aid Responses to the Current Food Crisis in the Horn of Africa.  
White, P. and Cliffe, L. (University of Leeds).London, England: Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Consortium for Political Emergencies; 2000 May(COPE Working Paper; 38). Centre for Development Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. 
This paper is an attempt to offer a timely analysis of the situation in the Horn of Africa as it unfolds, in the hope that this will be of practical use to agencies grappling with the conundrums involved in providing relief and development assistance to two nations pointless war with one another. It deals with the "famine" that grabbed world media attention in April and May 2000, aid agency responses to it and its links with conflict, in particular the simmering "border" conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia which erupted into all-out war during this period. It addresses debates about the extent to which conflict rather than drought is a causal factor in the emergence of famine conditions and an obstacle to effective response, and about what form of "conditionality, if any donors should be applying to pressure the belligerent parties into a peace settlement.   

Realistic Rehabilitation: Linking Relief and Development in Mozambique.  
Whiteside, M. Development in Practice. 1996; 6(2). ISSN: 0961-4544. 
Rehabilitation involves re-establishing livelihood security among the poorest households in order to reduce vulnerability to future disasters, re-start the local economy in a sustainable fashion, and avoid dependency. This article discusses experiences of post-war rehabilitation in Mozambique and suggests that, although many households rapidly re-started crop production, they remain vulnerable because they have not been able to rebuild reserves. The author cautions against over-rapid withdrawal from relief programmes and suggests that distributing cash and allowing households to but what they need most is sometimes more appropriate than distributing food, seeds, tools and selected household goods.   

Health Strategic Response: Relief, Rehabilitation and Development.
WHO-EHA. 
Dr. Yasukawa presented a draft of guiding principles elaborated on the basis of a review of relevant literature, a series of consultations and various case studies. She summarized the problems and dilemmas in linking relief and development responses both in general and in a health context. Poorly conceived responses with different priorities, agendas and stakeholders added to the complexity. Examples include interventions with short-term perspectives; the absence of any exit strategy on the side of relief agencies; and inexperience of development agencies in working in a crisis environment which created gaps when relief agencies withdrew from the scene. The guiding principles were proposed in an effort to respond to these identifies dilemmas. 

World Food Programme. From Crisis to Recovery.  
New York: World Food Programme; 1998 Apr 6; WFP/EB.A/98/4-A. (Policy Issues). 
Recovery from natural and man-made crisis will continue to represent one of the major challenges confronting humanitarian and development agencies in the coming decades. Since 1980, over 50 countries have faced major protracted conflicts; many are still ongoing. Currently, about 35 million people are displaced in 30 low- and middle-income countries. Accompanying this population displacement and exposure to violence is the erosion of social structures and human capital; damaged housing, schools, health facilities and infrastructure; and reduced productive capacity. The magnitude of crisis is apparent in the profile of WFP beneficiaries. In 1996, WFP assisted 16 million internally displaced persons, 4.5 million refugees and 4.1 million victims of natural disasters such as earthquakes, flood and droughts, about four million people more than the 20.7 million reached through development projects.

Impact Evaluation of the Youth Reintegration Training and Education for Peace Program.
MSI. August 2001.

Evaluation of USAID/OTI's Women in Transition Initiative in Rwanda
Baldwin, Hannah; Newbury, Catherine. 1999.

Transition in the Democratic Republic of the Congo : opportunities and pitfalls -- Congo assessment team report
Mahdesian, Michael; Gambino, Anthony; et al. August 1997.

Options paper : towards a rapid response human rights mechanism -- final report
Golub, Stephen. December 1994.

Strengthening Human Rights Monitoring Missions : an options paper
Golub, Stephen. December 1995.

From Documentation to Deterrence : the operation of human rights monitoring missions.
Forman, Johanna Mendelson. February 1996.

Sierra Leone: "Conflict" Diamonds -- Progress Report On Diamond Policy And Development Program. 
USAID/Office of Transition Initiatives. March 30, 2001.

Future Directions for USAID Support to Conflict Mitigation in Nigeria.
ARD, Inc. July 12, 2001.

Transition in the Democratic Republic of the Congo : opportunities and pitfalls -- Congo assessment team report. 
Mahdesian, Michael; Gambino, Anthony; et al. August 1997.

Guide to Program Options in Conflict-Prone Settings.
USAID/Office of Transition Initiatives. July 2001.

Roundtable Report: "Community-Based Reintegration and Rehabilitation in Post-Conflict Settings." 
USAID/Office of Transition Initiatives and UNDP/Emergency Response Division. October 30-31 2000.

USAID's strategy for Angola
July 1995.

Other country experiences in demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants : workshop proceedings -- 16-20 January 1995 and case study findings -- 16-20 January 1995. 
April 1995

Consultative Meeting on Integrating Peacebuilding and Conflict Prevention into Development Practice
(RTF version)

Assessing the Peace and Conflict Impact of Development Projects
Keane Shore
1998-07-24