Terms and Concepts Used in Conflict Prevention, Mitigation, and Resolution in the Context of Disaster Relief and Sustainable Development

In Alphabetical Order

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Aborted state: A state that has experienced failure even before the process of state-formation was consolidated. (Gros 1992, cited by CIFP 1998: http://www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/cifp/)

Absolute poverty:  A situation where a population or section of a population is able to meet only its bare subsistence essentials of food, clothing, and shelter to maintain minimum levels of living. (Todaro 1997: 676)

Absolutism: The principle or the exercise of complete and unrestricted power in government; or, any theory holding that values, principles, etc., are absolute and not relative, dependent, or changeable. (Infoplease: http://www.infoplease.com/)

Absorptive capacity: The ability of a country to absorb foreign private or public financial assistance (to use the funds in a productive manner). Also, the capacity of an ecosystem to assimilate potential pollutants. (Todaro 997: 676)

Accelerators: Events that typically increase the level or significance of the most volatile of the background and intervening conditions; moreover, they often develop a momentum of their own capable of escalating a crisis. (Harff and Gurr 1997: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/pubs.htm)

Acculturation: Process by which continuous contact between two or more distinct societies causes cultural change. The beliefs and customs of the groups sometimes merge almost equally and result in a single culture. More often, however, one society completely absorbs the cultural patterns of another. This change often occurs because of political or military domination. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Active discrimination: Deliberate state policies limiting a people’s access to political positions or economic opportunities, or pervasive social practice by dominant groups. (Gurr & Haxton, 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Adjudication: Instrument of conflict management involving adversaries who have no influence in choosing the third party, only one party required for an intervention to occur, and a judge is the decision making authority. The focus of intervention is a binding, law-based result in the nature of a win-lose outcome. (Kleiboer, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Adjustment assistance: Public financial assistance provided to workers and industries hurt by imports of lower-priced foreign goods. Such assistance allows them to ‘adjust” to a new occupation during a transitional period. (Todaro 1997: 676)

Advanced capitalism: An economic system characterized by private ownership but with a major role played by the public sector. Most developed market economies like those in North America, Western Europe, Japan, and Australia are examples of advanced capitalism. (Todaro 1997: 676)

Adverse or disruptive regime transitions: Major, abrupt shifts in patterns of governance, including state collapse, periods of severe instability, and shifts toward authoritarian rule. They include collapse of central state authority for two or more years; transition toward autocratic rule by revolution or coup; abrupt transition toward autocratic rule by nonviolent means; and violent regime instability accompanied by revolution or coup, with no increase in autocracy. (Jaggers and Gurr 1995; cited by Esty et al 1995: 2)

Advocacy: Partial third-party entreaties usually on behalf of one party to the conflict (often the weaker one) to external decision makers and power brokers. Advocacy campaigns raise awareness about particular issues and conditions and aim to bring about policy changes. (Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs.thes.htm)

Affirmative action: The giving of preferential treatment in education or employment to disadvantaged groups in order to compensate for the effects of discrimination.

African Renaissance: A term given currency by South African President Thabo Mbeki, it is a metaphor for a series of positive events occurring in Africa -- in contrast to the horrors of Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Somalia –such as the end of apartheid and economic and political renewal even in countries long– considered "basket cases" like Mozambique and Uganda. (Ottaway 1999: www.ceip.org/programs/democr/ThinkAgainAfrica.htm)

Agenda-setting: Controlling the focus of attention by establishing the issues for public discussion. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Aggravating factors: Factors that can add to the weight of mobilizing and/or pivotal factors. They can differ per phase of a conflict. They are often important with regard to the (de-)escalation of a conflict. For example, the uncontrolled proliferation of small arms in an unstable political system can tilt the balance toward violent solutions instead of political debate. Aggravating factors are often related to the policies of the governments or external actors involved. (Arias Foundation 1998: 8)

Aggression: Use of armed force by a state against the sovereignty, territory, integrity or political independence of another state, or in any manner inconsistent with the charter of the United Nations. (UN 1994)

Agrarian system: The pattern of land distribution, ownership, and management, also the social and institutional structure of the agrarian economy. Many Latin American and Asian agrarian systems are characterized by concentrations of large tracts of land owned by a few powerful landlords. Rural development in many less developed countries may require extensive reforms of the existing agrarian system. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Agricultural extension services: Services offered to farmers, usually by the government, in the form of transmitting information, new ideas, methods, and advice about, for instance, the use of fertilizers, control of pests and weeds, appropriate machinery, soil conservation methods, and simple accounting, in a bid to stimulate high farm yields. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Agricultural labor productivity: The level of agricultural output per unit of labor input, usually measured as output per worker-hour or worker-year. It is very low in less developed countries compared to developed countries. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Agricultural sector: The portion of the economy comprising agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Aid weariness (fatigue): Attitude among some donor-country politicians and populations that foreign aid has been unsuccessful and that they are tired of giving it. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Alienation: A process whereby an individual or group is estranged from larger social units, including family, community, or nation-state.

Amnesty: An act by which the state pardons political or other offenders, usually as a group. In 1977, for example, President Carter granted amnesty to all Vietnam draft evaders. Amnesties are often used as a gesture of political reconciliation. In 1990, the ruling Sandinistas in Nicaragua declared an amnesty for over a thousand political prisoners as a prelude to a general election. Amnesties also sometimes occur after a change of government or regime. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Anarchic state: A state with no centralized government, where armed groups acting under orders from warlords fight it out for eventual control of a non-existing state. (Gros 1992, cited by CIFP 1998: http://www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/cifp/)

Anemic state: A state whose energies have been sapped by counter-insurgency groups seeking to take the place of the authority formally in power. (Gross 1992, cited by CIFP 1998: http://www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/cifp/)

Anomic group: Spontaneously formed interest group with concern over a specific issue. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Appropriate technology: Technology that is appropriate for existing factor endowments. For example, a technology employing a higher proportion of labor relative to other factors in a labor-abundant economy is usually more appropriate than one that uses smaller labor proportions relative to other factors. (Todaro 1997: 677)

Arbitration: Traditional method of dispute settlement whereby the conflicting parties voluntarily seek out a single arbiter or arbitration court to arrive at a final judgment. The arbiter is an authoritative and legitimate third party, superior in strength to the parties to the dispute. The recommendation reached by a (neutral) arbiter is considered binding. (Hamzeh n.d, Kleiboer 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Armed conflict:

1. Conflict between two or more parties, but usually between the state and an anti-state group or groups using weapons on a sustained basis.

2. Combat between forces that both possess weapons. Hostilities of a kind which breach, or threaten to breach, international peace and security, such as invasions, interventions, border clashes and incursions, and also civil strife with some external dimension. Most commonly, this dimension would involve either support from external patrons, or the threat of spillover effects in neighboring countries from refugee flows and the like. (Evans, 1993; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Asset ownership: The ownership of land, physical capital, human capital, and financial resources that generate income for owners. The distribution of asset ownership is a major determinant of the distribution of personal income in any nonsocialist society. (Todaro 1997: 678)

Assimilation: The process by which individuals or groups are absorbed into and adopt the dominant culture and society of another group. Assimilation usually involves a gradual change and takes place in varying degrees; full assimilation occurs when new members of a society become indistinguishable from older members. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Associational group: Formally organized group which articulates the interests of its members over long periods of time. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Asymmetrical federalism: A federal system of government in which powers are unevenly divided between provinces or regions, i.e. some have greater responsibilities or more autonomy than others. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Auction politics: A danger in democratic politics in which state power may be "sold" to the highest bidding groups. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Autarchy: A closed economy that attempts to be completely self-reliant. (Todaro 1997: 67

Authoritarian: A governmental or political system, principle, or practice in which individual freedom is held as completely subordinate to the power or authority of the state, centered either in one person or a small group that is not constitutionally. The term can also refer to favoring complete obedience or subjection to authority as opposed to individual freedom. (Infoplease: http://www.infoplease.com/)

Autocracy: A government that sharply restricts civil rights and political participation, concentrates most or all political power in the executive, and distributes and transfers political power within a small political elite. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 189)

Autonomy: A political arrangement in which an ethnic group has some control over its own territory, people, and resources but does not have independence as a sovereign state. The specifics of autonomy arrangements vary widely. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 189)

Balance of payments: Measurement of a country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world. There are three principal components: the current account, the capital account, and the overall account. If the balance of payments is at a sustainable level, the country is in a state of external equilibrium. (TIID, 1997)

Balance of power: Conflict management method in international relations counter-balancing the hegemonic tendencies of any single power by an alliance or realignment among other states. A balance of an interstate power system is generally considered stable if no single state achieves a dominant position, the independence of the great powers is assured, and major wars are avoided. (Levy 1992; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs.thes.htm)

Balkanization: To break up into small, hostile units, as happened to the Balkan states (Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Turkey and Romania) after World War I. A more recent example occurred in Lebanon during the 1980s, when the country split up into many warring factions with no central authority. The term "Lebanonization" was used for a while as the equivalent of balkanization. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Bargaining: Process of give and take during negotiations, beginning with a first offer (entry point) from each side and ending –if negotiations are not aborted– with final offers (exit points). Agreements may be reached by compromising on each single issue or by trading concessions on one issue for 'exchanging points' by the other side on another. Homan's Theorem states that the more the items at stake can be divided into goods valued more by one party than they cost to the other, and goods valued more by the other party than they cost to the first, the greater the chances of successful outcomes. (Homans, 1961; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Basic education: The attainment of literacy, arithmetic competence, and elementary vocational skills. (Todaro 1997: 678)

Basic needs: Minimum requirements of a community for a decent standard of life: adequate food, shelter, and clothing plus some household equipment and furniture. They also include essential services provided by and for the community-at-large such as safe drinking water, sanitation, health and education facilities, protection against human rights violations and gainful employment. (Welsh & Butorin 1990: 98)

Bhutanization: A term coined from the experience of Bhutan to describe a small state that has been semi-absorbed by a larger one. (Hettne 1993: 138)

Big brotherism: Paternalistic authoritarianism that seeks to supply the needs and regulate the conduct of people. (Infoplease: http://www.infoplease.com/)

Black market: A market in which certain goods or services are routinely traded in a manner contrary to the laws or regulations of the government in power. (Johnson 1994-2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Bottom up: This term refers to participatory development involving beneficiaries in the design and implementation of development activities from the very inception of that process. (Tisch and Wallace 1994: 161)

Brain drain: The emigration of highly educated and skilled professional and technical manpower from the developing to the developed countries. (Todaro 1997: 679)

Brinkmanship: In political diplomacy or negotiation, the art of taking big risks, even to the brink of war, hoping the adversary will back down. Brinkmanship can be a way of testing an adversary's resolve. Much of brinkmanship consists of bluffing, but it can be a dangerous game to play if either side misinterprets the moves of the other. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Bureaucratic politics: Theories or explanations of why particular public policy decisions got made the way they did that stress the motivation by the relevant officials in the government bureaucracy to protect or promote their own agency's special interests (in competition with other agencies) as a major motivating factor in shaping the timing and the content of government decisions. This position holds that policies and policy recommendations are often better understood as the by-product of bureaucratic turf-battles and expedient compromises between bureaucratic chieftains than as the product of reasoned analysis of how most effectively and efficiently to carry out policy commitments or to serve the public interest. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html

Calorie requirement: The calories needed to sustain the population at normal levels of activity and health, taking account of its age and sex distributions, average body weights, and physical environment. (Todaro 1997: 679)

Calorie supply per capita: The calorie equivalent of the available food supplies in a country divided by its total population. (Todaro 1997: 679)

Capacity building: The development of individual and collective abilities or capacities to transform conflict from violence into a positive, constructive force. Collectively, capacity building also includes the development of institutions, both state and non-state, which allow society to handle conflict in non-violent ways. (International Alert 1996; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Capital flight: Transfer of funds to a foreign country by a local citizen or business. (Todaro 1997: 679)

Capital stock:  The total amount of physical goods existing at a particular time that have been produced for use in the production of other goods (including services). (Todaro 1997: 680)

Captured agency: A government agency, especially a regulatory agency, that is largely under the influence of the economic interest group(s) most directly and massively affected by its decisions and policies -- typically business firms (and sometimes professional associations, labor unions, or other special interest groups) from the industry or economic sector being regulated. A captured agency shapes its regulations and policies primarily to benefit these favored client groups at the expense of less organized and often less influential groups (such as consumers) rather than design them in accordance with some broader or more inclusive conception of the public interest. (Johnson 1994-2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Captured state: A state exhibiting a strong centralized authority that has been captured by members of insecure elites who frustrate or eradicate rivals. A state is “captured” when the elite members disagree on a common set of rules by which to govern. (Gros 1992, cited by CIFP 1998: http://www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/cifp/)

Cartel: A formal organization set up by a group of firms that produce and sell the same product for the purpose of exacting and sharing monopolistic rents. The intended purpose of a cartel is to reap monopoly profits by artificially restricting output and thus driving the price above the level that would prevail if they remained in competition with one another. (Johnson 1994-2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Cash crops: Crops produced entirely for the market. (Todaro 1997: 680)

Casual employment: Employment on an ad hoc basis without regular hours or a wage contract; most often found in the informal sector. (Todaro 1997: 680)

Chaos: A condition of total social, economic and political disorder, in which the state is unable to provide for law enforcement and security or deliver basic services, and the economic and other institutions that underpin and sustain normal life in the community collapse.

Character of economic growth: The distributive implications of the process of economic growth; for example, participation in the growth process or asset ownership. In other words, how that economic growth is achieved and who benefits. (Todaro 1997: 680)

Charismatic authority: Authority based on the admiration of personal qualities of an individual. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Checks and balances: A system of government in which power is divided between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, and these powers check and balance each other. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Child soldier: Any person below 18 years of age who is recruited into an armed force/group and participates in lethal violence or other military support activities such as spying, serving as a messenger or porter, mine clearing, etc. in a political (non-criminal) context. (Rädda Barnen 1998)

Citizenship: Legal membership in a community known as a nation-state. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Civil disobedience: Refusal to obey unjust laws. This tactic is most effective when used by fairly large groups as a way of getting unjust laws changed. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) and his followers in India mounted many campaigns of mass civil disobedience in their campaign for independence from Britain. The American civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, led by Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-68), used the same tactic. Civil disobedience is usually passive and nonviolent and aimed at bringing injustices to the attention of lawmakers and the public-at-large. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Civil rights/liberties: The rights of every citizen to freedom of thought, freedom of conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of movement, freedom to enjoy privacy and autonomy in the management of one's personal affairs, freedom of private individuals to associate voluntarily and to form organizations for pursuing common purposes, and freedom to participate politically in ways that do not infringe upon the similar rights of others. Although the two terms overlap considerably in ordinary usage (and are often difficult to distinguish in concrete instances), the term civil liberties generally refers more specifically to the protection of the individual's rights to form and express his or her own preferences or convictions and to act freely upon them in the private sphere without undue or intrusive interference by the government, while the term civil rights emphasizes more specifically the individual's rights as a citizen to participate freely and equally in politics and public affairs in order actively to promote his/her preferred public policy alternatives through lobbying policy-makers and/or through personal participation in the electoral process. Thus, civil liberties may be seen as the logical correlates of the goal of limited government, while civil rights are the logical correlates of the goal of popular or democratic government. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Civil society:

1. The collective entity that exists independent of the state composed of NGOs, social movements, and professional and voluntary associations. Civil society occupies a public space between citizen and government and between economy and state. It creates a network of pressure groups able to resist the holders of state power, if necessary. (Seligman 1992; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

2. The total network of private, voluntary organizations. Many terms have been used to describe the organizations that comprise civil society, including non-governmental organizations, private voluntary organizations, grassroots support organizations, private/public organizations, secondary organizations, and voluntary organizations. The literature from these organizations suggests that an effective functioning civil society is one of the key prerequisites for survival of a democratic political system. (TIID 1997)

3. The social, economic, and political groupings that structure the demographic tissue; distinct and independent of the state but potentially under state control, performing demand and support functions in order to influence, legitimize, and/or even replace some of the activities of the state (Zartman 1995: 6)

Civil war: An armed conflict between groups within the same country. Warring factions each control territory, have a functioning government, identifiable regular armed forces, and the allegiance of a significant portion of the nation’s citizens.

Civil-military operations: Activities in support of operations including the participation of both the military forces and civilian authorities.

Clan-katura: A derivative of the term nomenklatura, it refers to the practice of appointing members of one’s clan to positions of influence and control over civil and military institutions. This practice was widespread in Somalia under the 1969-1991 Siyad regime. (Adam 1995: 71-72)

Cleavage: Socially maintained distinctions among groups in stratified societies. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 193)

Closed economy: An economy in which there are no foreign trade transactions or any other form of economic contacts with the rest of the world. (Todaro 1997: 681)

CNN factor:

1. Alleged emotional influence of massive and direct television coverage and consequent mass arousal on governmental decision making in humanitarian emergency situations. (Leitenberg, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

2. The dependence of political will on media coverage of humanitarian disaster. (Schmeidl and Jenkins 1998)

3. The rule of thumb to ignore foreign problems that do not make headlines, but those covered by CNN should have been addressed yesterday. (Regehr, cited by Lederach 1997: 73)

Coalition: An alliance between two or more political units in response to opposing forces. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Coalition building: Mobilizing different parties and interest groups sharing an interest in one issue area to prepare for confrontation with an adversary or to end a conflict. (Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs.thes.htm)

Coalition government: A parliamentary government in which the cabinet is composed of members of more than one party. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Coercion:

1. The attempt to enforce desired behavior on individuals, groups, or governments. (US DOD: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/)

2. A form of power based on forced compliance through fear and intimidation. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Coercive diplomacy: Gunboat diplomacy or form of military-politico strong-arm tactics to force an unwilling party to accept treaty or terms. (Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Coexistence: A tacit agreement between two or more groups, parties, nations etc. in fundamental disagreement or conflict not to go to war. Coexistence is not quite the same as peace. Parties remain wary and often hostile toward each other, but accept widely different ideologies and social systems can exist without those differences alone being incentive for war. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Collapsing state: A state losing physical control of its territory, forfeiting the authority to make collective decisions for the national population. Such a state lacks a monopoly on the legitimate use of force and cannot interact in formal relations with other states as a fully functioning member of the international community. It may become a repressive or predatory regime in conflict with significant segments of the population. A collapsing state may disintegrate functionally (such as Zaire) or physically (such as Somalia). (Baker & Weller 1998: 10)

Collective defense: An alliance among states against external threats. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Collective intervention: The interference by a group of states in another country’s internal or territorial affairs. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 189)

Collective responsibility:

1. The responsibility borne by all participants to abide by a decision and be responsible for its consequences. Britain applies the doctrine to its cabinet, which is collectively responsible to Parliament for its decisions. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

2. In contrast with the responsibility of an individual for his or her own actions, this term refers to the accountability of individuals in a group for actions taken on its behalf. For example, a board of directors may share collective responsibility for the direction of a company whether or not all individuals directly participate in a particular strategy. Likewise, it could be said that the Afrikaners share collective guilt for wrongs committed by the apartheid state. Trials for human-rights violations have been often criticized for focusing on the individuals who committed the crimes rather than confronting larger issues such as impunity, chains of command, or collective responsibility.

Collective security: A commitment by a number of states to join in an alliance against member states that threaten peace. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Collective violence: Situations in which people are harmed by the joint contribution of perpetrators, ranging from a small group to an entire society. The number and type of victims can also range widely: a gang attack on a single person; a person losing property or means of livelihood due to destruction during a riot; or harm to an entire population or ethnic group. Instances of collective violence vary along a continuum from spontaneous actions through premeditated and carefully planned mass-killing projects. (Summers and Markusen 1999: ix)

Collectivism: An economic system in which the means of production are owned by collective agencies, such as the government or community, and not by private individuals or business firms. (Todaro 1997: 681)

Combat: A violent planned form of fighting, in which at least one party is an organized force. One or both parties hold at least one of the following objectives: to seize control of territory, to prevent the opponents' seizure and control of territory, or to protect one’s own territory. (Dupuy, 1986: 52-53)

Common property resource: A resource that is publicly owned and allocated under a system of unrestricted access. (Todaro 1997: 681)

Communal contender: Culturally distinct peoples, tribes, or clans in heterogeneous societies who hold or seek a share in state power. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Comparative politics: An area of political study concerned with the relative similarities and differences of political systems. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Complementary investments: Investments that complement and facilitate other productive factors – for example, capital with labor, education and training of unskilled workers, pesticides and fertilizers on farmland. (Todaro 1997: 682)

Complex (humanitarian) emergency:

1. Natural or man-made disaster with economic, social and political dimensions. A humanitarian crisis in a country, region, or society where there is a total or considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict, requiring an international response that extends beyond the mandate or capacity of any single agency and/or the ongoing UN country program. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)

2. Natural or man-made disaster with economic, social and political dimensions. A profound social crisis in which a large number of people die and suffer from war, disease, hunger, and displacement owing to man-made and natural disasters, while some others may benefit from it. Four factors can be measured: the fatalities from violence; the mortality of children under five years of age; the percentage of underweight children under five; and the number of external refugees and internally displaced persons. (Väyrynen, 1998; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Compromise: A settlement of differences in which each party makes mutual concessions for the purpose of reaching an agreement. It also refers to an agreement blending qualities midway between two different things. Politicians constantly make compromises to keep the widely divergent groups in society satisfied. Without compromise it is difficult to reach agreements and keep government running. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Concentration camp: Location where selected groups of people are confined under inhumane conditions and sometimes killed for purposes of political persecution. Euphemisms for concentration camps include corrective labor camps, detention centers, and internment camps. The most notorious were those instituted by the Nazis to hold and later exterminate Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, communists, and other groups.

Conciliation: The process by which two sides in a dispute agree to a compromise. The agreement has to be voluntary; the process of conciliation, unlike arbitration, does not compel the disputants to accept the proposed solution. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Conciliator: A trusted third party who provides a communication link between the antagonist to assist in identifying the major issues, lowering tension, and moving them toward direct interaction, typically negotiation. (Fisher and Keashly 1990 and 1991; cited by Fisher 1997: 164)

Conditionality: The requirement imposed by the International Monetary Fund that a borrowing country undertake fiscal, monetary, and international commercial reforms as a condition to receiving a loan for balance of payments difficulties. (Todaro 1997: 682)

Confederation: A group of states, which join together to execute some government functions, such as the conduct of defense or foreign policy, but remain independent, sovereign states. The U.S. was a confederation from 1778 until 1787, after which it became a federation. (Fast Times 1999: HYPERLINK http://www.fast-times.com/political.html http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Conflict:

1. The struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources, in which the aims of the groups or individuals involved are to neutralize, injure or eliminate rivals. (Coser, 1956: 8)

2. Two or more parties with incompatible interests who express hostile attitudes or pursue their interests through actions that damage the other(s). Parties may be individuals, small or large groups or countries. Interests can diverge in many ways, such as over access to and distribution of resources (e.g. territory, money, energy sources, food); control of power and participation in political decision making; identity, (cultural, social and political communities); status; or values, particularly those embodied in systems of government, religion, or ideology. (Creative Associates International 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai/)

Conflict impact assessment system (CIAS): Method to estimate and evaluate the negative effects of conflict escalation. Early warning systems that alert potentially affected parties of increased conflict escalation risks should also inform their audiences of the costs that a wait-and-see policy is likely to incur. (Reychler, 1997; cited Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Conflict mitigation/management:

1. Efforts to contain and reduce the amount of violence used by parties in violent conflict and engage them in a process to settle the dispute and terminate the violence. (Creative Associates International, 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai/)

2. The reduction or minimization of violent acts normally targeted toward a specific group in order to compel restraint and restore calm. (von Lipsey, ed. 1997: 5)

Conflict prevention: Actions, policies, procedures or institutions utilized in vulnerable places and times to keep states or groups from threatening or using armed force and related forms of coercion to settle disputes. Also refers to actions taken after a violent conflict to avoid recurrence. (Creative Associates International, 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai/)

Conflict resolution:

1. A process that transforms conflicts in an enduring manner rather than settling disputes or suppressing differences, by addressing basic human needs and building qualities of sustainable relationships between groups through creating structural mechanisms involving equality among identity groups, multi-culturalism, and federalism as appropriate to each situation. (Fisher, 1997: 268-69)

2. Efforts to increase cooperation among parties to conflict and deepen their relationship by addressing the conditions that led to dispute, fostering positive attitudes and allaying mistrust through reconciliation initiatives, and building or strengthening the institutions and processes through which the parties interact. Conflict resolution can be used to reduce the chances of violence or to consolidate the cessation of violent conflict to prevent re-escalation. (Creative Associates International, 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai/)

Congo effect: This term refers to a surge in political instability that has threatened several African countries after becoming involved in the war in the DROC. (Duke 1999: A19)

Connectors: Links between people across the lines of conflict. Even in societies where civilian-based civil war rips daily patterns apart, many aspects of life continue to connect people rather than divide them. Common history, culture, language and experience; shared institutions and values; economic and political interdependence; and habits of thinking and acting exist in all societies, including those embroiled by civil war. (Anderson 1999: 23-24)

Conscientization: A term to describe the process whereby people achieve an understanding of the social reality in which they live and their possibilities for actively changing it. (Freire cited by Sørensen 1993: 157)

Conscription: The legal obligation of citizens to perform a stated period of compulsory military duty.

Consent of the governed: The idea that a just government must be based on the consent of the people who live under its jurisdiction. Government must be an expression of popular will. This concept is found in the writings of Western political theorists from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, especially John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Stuart Mill. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Conservatism: A general preference for the existing order of society and an opposition to all efforts to bring about rapid or fundamental change in that order. Conservative ideologies characteristically strive to show that existing economic and political inequalities are well justified and that the existing order is about as close as is practically attainable to an ideal order. Conservative ideologies most often base their claims on the teachings of religion and traditional morality and tend to downplay the reliability of purely rational or deductive social theories propounded by secular philosophers, economists, and other social thinkers. The specific content of "conservatism" is highly variable across societies and over time, since the arguments necessary to defend the status quo depend upon what the status quo is in any particular country. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Consociational democracy: A type of democratic system characterized by mechanisms serving to promote compromise and consensus among groups in society. Such mechanisms include federalist systems, special legislative practices, and state agencies that facilitate intergroup compromise. (Sørensen 1993: 157)

Consolidated democracy: A democracy in which none of the major political actors consider any alternative to democratic processes to gain power, and no political institution or group has a claim to veto the actions of democratically elected decisionmakers. (Sørensen 1993: 157-158)

Constituent: A person who is represented politically by a designated government official or officeholder, especially when the official is one that the person represented has the opportunity to participate in selecting through voting or perhaps through other methods of indicating political confidence and support. Although the core meaning of the term has to do with the relationship between the voters and their elected representatives, the term is often expanded somewhat to include other individuals or groups whose interests any official in government (whether elected or not) feels morally obligated (or compelled by the political realities of the situation) to protect or further in the policy-making process. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Consultation: A knowledgeable and skilled third party who attempts to facilitate creative problem solving through communication and analysis using social-scientific understanding of the conflict process. (Fisher and Keashly 1990, 1991, cited by Fisher 1997: 164)

Consumption diseconomies: Problems (costs) that occur to individuals or a society as a whole as a result of the unpopular consumption habits of another individual. Examples include alcoholism, poor individual hygiene, and drug addiction. (Todaro 1997: 682)

Consumption economies: Advantages (benefits) that occur to individuals or a society as a whole as a result of increases in the consumption of certain types of goods or services by other individuals (e.g. education, health care). (Todaro 1997: 682)

Cost of conflict: Calculation of conflict cost is notoriously incomprehensive and tends to be limited to direct material and human losses. A fuller assessment should take into consideration the following categories: the human toll with particular consequences for children; the destruction of social fabrics and coping mechanisms; effects on the economy as resource bases are devastated; repercussions when traditional institutions and power relations are altered; threats to regional stability if disputes spill over into neighboring states; humanitarian and reconstruction aid costs for rebuilding war-torn societies; the price tag for peacekeeping; and lost opportunities in development, trade and investment. (Creative Associates International, 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai/)

Counter-revolution: The overthrowing of a revolution and return to the preceding social order. A famous series of counter-revolutions took place throughout Europe in 1848. After revolutions had overthrown monarchies and autocrats all over the continent, a conservative backlash restored the ousted monarchies and aristocrats to power. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Coup d'état:

1. Seizure of an existing government by a small group. This overthrow is sometimes accompanied by violence. A coup d'état involves relatively few members of the population, and these few are frequently military officers. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

2. A quick and decisive extra-legal seizure of governmental power by a relatively small but highly organized group of political or military leaders, typically by means of the unexpected arrest or assassination of the incumbent chief executive and his principal supporters within the government. Most frequently, coups are initiated and led by high-ranking military officers. They are most apt to be successful in countries where both the general population's and the government bureaucracy's ideological dedication to upholding established constitutional procedures is relatively weak and consequently there is little danger of massive civilian resistance or non-cooperation by the rank and file of soldiers and other government employees. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Crimes against humanity:

1. Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during war, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated. (UN Geneva Conventions 1949 & additional protocols)

2. The following acts when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack against civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds: Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, torture, rape, persecution on political, racial and religious grounds, other inhumane acts. (UN Geneva Conventions 1949 & additional protocols)

Crisis: A set of rapidly unfolding events in general international systems, subsystems, or a country which raises the impact of destabilizing forces substantially above normal levels and increases the likelihood of the occurrence of violence. (Billing, 1992: 92)

Crisis management: Efforts to keep situations of high tension and confrontation from breaking into armed violence, usually involving threats of force. (Creative Associates International, 1998: http://www.caii-dc.com/ghai)

Cult of personality: The enormous power of the leader of authoritarian regimes, reinforced and enhanced by exaggerated propaganda centered on him personally. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Cultural imperialism: The attempt of one society to impose its values on another. (Tisch and Wallace 1994: 161)

Culture: The system of values, customs, beliefs, myths and the historical, philosophical, legal, and religious heritage by and through which a society defines itself and is able to function as a relatively self-contained entity. Culture is rarely factored explicitly into development models and strategies. Some believe that the neglect of culture has been an important reason for development failure and also for the emergence of violent conflict. (Welsh & Butorin, 1990: 272)

Curative medicine: Medical care that focuses on curing rather than preventing disease; requires extensive availability of hospitals and clinics. (Todaro 1997: 683)

De-accelerator: A significant cooperative event or shift in policy that tends to de-escalate crisis. (Harff and Gurr 1997: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/pubs.htm)

Delegitimation: A process by which a government’s basis for its right to govern is eroded. (Sørensen 1993: 158)

Demagogue: A leader who wins political support by playing to popular fears and prejudices, trying to build up hatred for certain groups. Adolph Hitler, who stirred up the masses by convincing them Jews were responsible for German ills, was a demagogue. In the US, Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957) who led a “witch hunt” for communists in the US during the 1950s, was also a demagogue. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Demobilization: The process of converting a fighter into a civilian. A fighter is in the process of demobilizing after reporting to an assembly area or camp, surrendering weapon and uniform, but awaiting final discharge. Personnel in assembly areas usually register soldiers for receipt of benefits, whether cash or in-kind. (USAID 1998: 6)

Demobilized: A fighter is demobilized after receiving discharge papers and leaving the assembly area. Reporting to an assembly area is not always a component of demobilization, even in a post-conflict situation. (USAID 1998: 6)

Democracy:

1. A system of government containing three essential conditions: meaningful competition among individuals and groups for representation in positions of government power; institutional channels for participation in public affairs and policymaking that are inclusive of all social and economic groups; and individual, civil and political liberties, including freedom of expression, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly to ensure the integrity of political competition and participation.

2. A political system with a competitive process for choosing leadership; established, publicly known and open decision making processes; institutionalized citizen participation in decision making; and institutionalized protections for participating citizens. (TIID, 1997)

Democratization: A process of change toward more democratic forms of rule. The first phase involves the breakdown of the nondemocratic regime. In the second phase, the elements of a democratic order are established. During the third phase, the new democracy is further developed; eventually, democratic practices become an established part of the political culture. (Sørensen 1993: 158)

Demographic pressure: Pressures deriving from four sources: high population density relative to food supply and other life-sustaining resources; group settlement patterns that affect the freedom to participate in common forms of human and physical activity, including economic productivity, travel, social interaction, religious worship, etc.; settlement patterns and physical settings, including border disputes, ownership or occupancy of land, access to transportation outlets, control of religious or historical sites, and proximity to environmental hazards; and skewed population distributions, such as “youth or age bulge,” or from divergent rates of population growth among competing communal groups. (Baker & Weller 1998: 21)

Demographic transition: A term which describes the movement from high birth rates and high death rates to low birth and death rates. In the first stage, both the birth and death rates are high. Although both rates are very high, it is assumed that the greatest variation is caused by deaths stemming from wars, famines and diseases. The population remains at a low but fluctuating level. The second stage is characterized by continuing high birth rates accompanied by a fall in death rates. As a result, life expectancy increases and population begins to expand. The third stage is characterized by a stabilization of deaths at a low level and a reduction of the birth rate. By the fourth stage, birth and death rates have stabilized and the population is stationary. (TIID, 1997)

Demonstration effects: The effects of transfers of foreign ways of life on nationals of a country. Such effects are mainly cultural and attitudinal, including consumption habits, modes of dressing, and approaches to education, leisure, and recreation. (Todaro 1997: 685)

Dependence: A situation in which less developed countries (LDCs) have to rely on developed-country domestic and international economic policy to stimulate their own economic growth. Dependence can also mean that the LDCs adopt developed-country education systems, technology, economic and political systems, attitudes, consumption patterns, dress, etc. (Todaro 1997: 685)

Deregulation: A government policy designed to remove regulations on market activity. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Desertification: The transformation of a region into dry barren land with little or no capacity to sustain life without an artificial source of water. Desertification frequently involves the loss of topsoil, which leads to permanent loss of cultivability. (Todaro 1997: 685)

Despotism: An individual ruling through fear without regard to law and not answerable to the people. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Deterrence: Threat-based dissuasive method of conflict escalation prevention that acts on the political will of an opponent in an attempt to restrain him or her from engaging in aggression or continuing further aggression. Deterrence is derived from the possession of credible power instruments to inflict high or unacceptable damage onto an opponent, thereby presumably restraining the latter from exploiting opportunities and pursuing expansionist intentions. (Lutz, 1980: 16-23)

Development:

1. Long-term development efforts aimed at bringing improvements in economic, political, and social status and the quality of life of all segments of the population as well as environmental sustainability.

2. Broad-based sustainable development has four components. The first is a healthy, growing economy that constantly transforms itself to maintain and enhance the standard of living. Second, the benefits of economic growth are equitably shared; women, minorities, immigrants, the poor, and the handicapped get a fair deal from economic growth. The third component includes respect for human rights, good governance, a vibrant civil society of non-governmental organizations, and an increasingly democratic society. The fourth is sustainability, which means that in the process of economic growth, we do not destroy the environment, enabling our descendants to enjoy the same or higher standard of living. (Weaver et al 1997: 2-3)

Development refugees: Also called ecological refugees, this term refers to tribal or other peoples displaced by major infrastructural or industrial projects that affect local ecosystems and ways of life. (Hettne 1993: 130-131.)

Devolution: The redistribution or delegation of political power away from a centralized body to a lower, often regional, authority. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Dialogue: A common response to destructive conflict between groups. Dialogue is primarily directed toward increasing understanding and trust among participants with some eventual positive effects on public opinion, rather than the creation of alternative solutions to the conflict. (Fisher, 1997: 121)

Diaspora: A historical dispersion of a group of people deriving from similar origins. For example, the African Diaspora includes African Americans, Africans, Caribbeans, Afro-Russians, Black Brazilians, Afro Latinos, etc. (UMD Diversity Dictionary, http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/Diversity/Reference/divdic.html)

Dictatorship: Government by a single person (or group) whose discretion in using the powers and resources of the state is unrestrained by any fixed legal or constitutional rules and who is (are) in no effective way held responsible to the general population or their elected representatives. (Johnson 1994-2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Diplomacy: The conduct of international relations by negotiation rather than force, propaganda, or recourse to law, and by other peaceful means (such as gathering information or engendering good-will) either directly or indirectly designed to promote negotiation. It is an activity regulated by custom and by law, though flexibility remains one of its vital features. (Berridge, 1995; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Direct democracy: A system of government based on public decisions made by citizens meeting in an assembly or voting by ballot. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Disaster: The occurrence of a sudden, major misfortune disrupting the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society or community. An event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and/or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood on a scale beyond the normal capacity of affected communities to cope without assistance. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)

Disaster mitigation: A collective term used to encompass all activities undertaken in anticipation of the occurrence of a potentially disastrous event, including preparedness and long-term risk assessment. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)

Disaster prevention: Originally defined as measures designed to prevent natural phenomena from causing or resulting in disaster or other emergency situations, the term has now been largely replaced by ‘mitigation’ in the recognition that few natural disasters can be definitively prevented. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)

Disaster reconstruction: Longer term activities designed to augment critical infrastructure and promote development goals. This follows disaster relief and rehabilitation but should be viewed as a part of a continuum. (USAID, undated: http://www.info.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/glossary.htm)

Disaster rehabilitation: Intermediate term activities to assist disaster stricken populations to return to a state of viability. A secondary priority to life-sustaining disaster relief. (USAID, undated: http://www.info.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/glossary.htm)

Discouraged workers: Individuals who would like to work but have abandoned the search for employment following fruitless attempts to find jobs. (Todaro 1997: 686)

Disenfranchisement: A lack of political, economic or social stake in the present and future well-being of the state. (von Lipsey, ed. 1997: 19)

Disguised underemployment: A situation in which available work tasks are split among resources (typically labor) such that all seem fully employed, but in reality much of their time is spent in unproductive activities. (Todaro 1997: 686)

Dispute:

1. Differences over negotiable interests, choices and preferences found in all human relationships. (Fisher, 1997: 32)

2. Disagreements between states (or within states) serious enough to amount to a potential threat to international peace and security, but not yet reaching the stage of hostilities. Issues here might typically be territorial claims, access to natural resources, access to transport routes and outlets to the sea, other perceived threats to national economic interests, major ideological disagreements or questions about treatment of ethnic minorities. (Evans, 1993: 7)

Distributive laws: Laws designed to distribute public goods and services to individuals in society. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Diversity: A situation that includes representation of multiple (ideally all) groups within a prescribed environment, such as a university or workplace. This word most commonly refers to differences between cultural groups, although it is also used to describe differences within cultural groups, e.g. diversity within the Asian-American culture including Korean Americans and Japanese Americans. An emphasis on accepting and respecting cultural differences by recognizing that no one culture is intrinsically superior to another underlies the current usage of the term. (UMD Diversity Dictionary, http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/Diversity/Reference/divdic.html)

Divide and rule: The practice of keeping power by making sure enemies are always divided and therefore too weak to mount an effective challenge. The Roman Empire perfected the strategy of divide and rule, and the British Empire employed the same tactic. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Dividers: Systems and institutions that historically or traditionally separate people and can thus cause tension between them. These include systems of discrimination, exclusion, and dominance, or might include spatial separation when different groups occupy separate areas. Such systems and institutions may promote or reflect long-standing tensions between groups and can cause –or be manipulated to cause– conflict. (Anderson 1999: 32)

Dominance: In international affairs, a situation in which the developed countries have much greater power than the less developed countries in decisions affecting important international economic issues. (Todaro 1997: 686)

Dominant minorities: Numerically small ethnic groups exercising a preponderance of both political and economic power within a society. Contemporary examples include South Africans of European descent and the Alawis of Syria. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 190)

Dynamic variables: Short-term, often sudden, political, economic, or other developments – or perceptions – that impact a country’s stability. These variables must be traced to assess whether a country is moving toward or away from violent conflict.

Early preventive diplomacy: The provision of skilled assistance through good offices, mediation and the like in order to resolve disputes well before the likelihood of eruption into armed conflict. (Evans, 1993: 10)

Early warning: The systematic collection and analysis of information coming from areas of crises for the purpose of anticipating the escalation of violent conflict; the development of strategic response to these crises; and the presentation of options to critical actors for the purpose of decision making. (FEWER, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Economic determinism: The doctrine that all social, cultural, political, and intellectual forms are determined by or result from such economic factors as the quality of natural resources, productive capability, technological development, or the distribution of wealth. (Infoplease: http://www.infoplease.com/)

Economic growth: The steady process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about rising levels of national output and income. (Todaro 1996: 688)

Economic infrastructure: The underlying amount of physical and financial capital embodied in roads, railways, waterways, airways, and other forms of transportation and communication plus water supplies, financial institutions, electricity, and public services such as health and education. The level of infrastructural development in a country is a crucial factor determining the pace and diversity of economic development. (Todaro 1997: 688)

Egalitarianism: A social philosophy or ideology placing primary stress on the value of human equality and advocating radical social reforms so as to eliminate all forms of economic, social and political inequality. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Elite-dominated democracy: System in which traditional rulers remain in control, even if pressured from below, and successfully use strategies of either compromise or force–or some mix of the two– to retain at least part of their power. (Sørensen 1993: 158)

Emerging infectious diseases: Pathogen-induced human illnesses which have increased in lethality, transmissibility, and/or expanded their geographical range since 1973. (Price-Smith 1999: 5-6)

Empire: A form of conglomerate state encompassing a geographical area or set of areas containing diverse peoples or ethnic groups and ruled by a single central government authority that is primarily identified with one dominant people or ethnic group. The empire thus consists of an imperial center and one or more colonies or other dependent subunits (provinces, protectorates, etc.) whose governments are subordinate to that of the imperial center. Historically, empires have usually first emerged either as the result of dynastic marriages among the royal families of hereditary absolute monarchies or, even more frequently, by an original "core" state expanding through the conquest and incorporation of territories occupied by other peoples, usually followed by the resettlement of substantial numbers of emigrants from the core population who then constitute a privileged governing elite in the newly acquired territories. An empire differs from such other forms of conglomerate state as a federation or confederation by virtue of the specially privileged political status of the core political unit (and often the entire core ethnic group or race) in contrast to the institutionalized inferior status of the other component governmental units and their native populations. (Johnson 1994 – 2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

Empowerment: An enabling condition manifested by individual self-assertion, collective mobilization, resistance and/or protest challenging existing power relations. It entails a process aimed at changing the nature and consequently the distribution of power. (TIID, 1997)

Enclave: An area surrounded or enclosed by territories belonging to another country. The area of Nagorno-Karabakh, for example, is an Armenian enclave within the state of Azerbaijan (and the source of a long-running war.) The term can also be used for a country or territory divided along sectarian grounds. One might speak, for example, of a Roman Catholic enclave within largely Protestant Northern Ireland. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Enclave economies: Economies in which there are small pockets of economically developed regions (often due to the presence of colonial or foreign firms engaged in plantation and mining activities) with the rest of the larger outlying areas experiencing very little progress. (Todaro 1997: 689)

Environmental capital: The portion of a country’s overall capital assets that directly relate to the environment – forests, soil quality, and rangeland. (Todaro 1997: 690)

Environmental degradation: The decline in quality of the physical environment such as air, soil, and water and/or the reduction of available natural resources, generally stemming from human abuse.

Epidemiological transition: The process through which, as incomes and health technologies improve, the incidence of infectious and preventable diseases drops and overall health status improves. In their later stages, chronic and non-communicable diseases are the primary health concerns for all age groups. The epidemiological transition normally parallels the demographic transition. (TIID, 1997)

Essentialism: The practice of categorizing a group based on an artificial social construction that imparts the “essence” of that group, homogenizing the group and erasing individual differences. (UMD Diversity Dictionary, http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/Diversity/Reference/divdic.html)

Ethnic cleansing: The systematized elimination of a targeted ethnic group for political purposes. Ethnic cleansing can be carried out through genocidal acts or forced migration. (Weiss & Collins, 1996; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Ethnic war: Secessionist civil war, rebellion, protracted communal warfare, or sustained episodes of mass protest by politically organized communal groups. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Ethnicity: The condition of belonging to a particular specific group, i.e. a particular religious, racial, national, or cultural group. (Houghton Mifflin Company 1982: 467)

Ethnicity of ruling elite: The ethnic composition of the ruling class. The comparison of the ethnicity of the ruling elite to that of the population-at-large in an ethnically divided society indicates whether the elite demographically represents a minority group or the population as a whole. (Esty et al 1995: 16)

Ethnocentrism: Belief in the inherent superiority of one's own cultural, ethnic, or political group. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Ethnocide: The extermination of a culture, whether by violent or non-violent means.

Ethnoclass: Ethnically or culturally distinct peoples, usually descended from slaves or immigrants, most of whom occupy a distinct social and economic stratum or niche. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Ethnodevelopment: A pattern of development compatible with ethnic peace. It implies a challenge not only to mainstream development but to the nation state, as it entails development within a framework of cultural pluralism, internal self-determination, sustainability, and territoriality (i.e., that the regions themselves are to be individually developed, not subordinated to the priorities of the center). (Hettne 1993: 132-135)

Ethno-nationalism: A political movement which aims to secure for an ethnic group a sovereign state of its own. (Lawson, 1995; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Ethnonationalists/ethnic nationalists:

1. Regionally concentrated peoples with a history of organized political autonomy with their own state, traditional ruler, or regional government, who have supported political movements for autonomy since 1945. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

2. Groups that ideologically define a territory as the national home of a particular group. Ethnic nationalist movements seek the status of a majority group within their own state rather than remain as a minority group in another. Hence demands for a “Serbian state” for all Serbs are tied to ideologies that treat nationality as a matter of blood right, and accord citizenship solely on the basis of ethnic ancestry and cultural tradition. (Mason 1995: http://testweb1.wilpaterson.edu/cohss/polisci/faculty/jmfailed.htm)

Ethno-political conflict: Open conflict in which groups that define themselves using ethnic criteria make claims on behalf of their collective interests against the state, or against other groups. The 'ethnic criteria' used by a group to define itself may include any combination of shared culture, language, religious belief, nationality, place of residence, race, and collective experience, past or present. The term ethnic group is loosely synonymous with peoples, communal group, and minority and identity group. (Gurr & Harff, 1996; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes/htm)

Ethnopolitical groups: Non-state communal groups that have acquired political significance in the contemporary world because of their status and political actions. These groups meet one or both of the following criteria: the group collectively suffers or benefits from systematic discriminatory treatment vis-à-vis other groups in a society; the group is the basis for political mobilization and action in defense or promotion of self-defined interests. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Ethno-sexual violence: Violence of a sexual nature committed on ethnic or religious grounds. In particular, it includes forced impregnation and attacks against human dignity, as well as forced prostitution. (Gurr & Haxton 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Export dependence: A situation in which a country relies heavily on exports as the major source of finance needed for carrying out development activities. This is the situation of many less developed countries, which must export primary products to earn valuable foreign exchange. (Todaro 1997: 691)

Export earnings instability: Wide and unpredictable fluctuations in less developed country commodity export earnings resulting from erratic movements in export prices. (Todaro 1997: 691)

Externality: In economics, any benefit or cost borne by an individual that is a direct consequence of another’s behavior for which there is no compensation. Externalities are internalized when adjustments are made such that each individual bears all the costs and benefits of his or her actions. (Todaro 1997: 691)

Faction: An association of individuals organized for the purpose of influencing government actions favorable to their interests. Also known by the term interest group. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Federalism: A form of government whereby political power is divided between a central or national authority and smaller, locally autonomous units such as provinces or states. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Federation: A state made up of a number of subdivisions that share power with the central government. Each of the smaller units retains control of many aspects of its own affairs but grants to the larger political unit the power to conduct foreign policy. The relationship between the states and the central, or federal government, is laid down in a constitution, which cannot be changed without the consent of a specified number of states (in the US, two-thirds). (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Fellow traveler: Someone who goes along with a specific belief without openly endorsing it. Fellow travelers may lie low because they do not want to risk the consequences of associating with dangerous or unpopular beliefs. The term is often used in an accusatory way. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Feud: Long-continued state of hostility between two social groups, such as tribes, clans, or families, and usually characterized by acts of violence. A feud is generally motivated by an initial episode involving an insult or injury that must be avenged. The long-standing and bloody feud that broke out in the late nineteenth century between the Hatfield and McCoy families of Kentucky and West Virginia is famous in American history and folklore. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Food insecurity:

Food security: Condition of all people at all times with both physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary needs for a productive and healthy life. (USAID 1992; cited by TIID, 1997)

Foreign aid: The international transfer of public funds in the form of loans or grants either directly from one government to another (bilateral assistance) or indirectly through the vehicle of a multilateral assistance agency like the World Bank. (Todaro 1997: 693)

Foreign (external) influence: Political, diplomatic, economic, or military influence on a conflict from actors in or outside countries.

Foreign internal defense: Participation by civilian and military agencies of a government in any action program taken by another government to free and protect its society from subversion, lawlessness, and insurgency. Also called FID. (US DOD: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/)

Free rider problem: Situation in which people secure benefits that someone else pays for. (Todaro 1997: 694)

Freedom of movement: The freedom of citizens to move in, around and from their country.

Frozen democracy: Restricted, elite-dominated democracies that are unwilling to carry out substantive reforms. (Karl, cited by Sørensen 1993: 158)

Gender gap: Any statistical gap between the measured characteristics of men and women in areas such as educational attainment, wage rates, or labor force participation. (Todaro 1997: 695)

Gender sensitivity: An approach that considers the presence of social, cultural, economic, and political inequalities that may exist between men and women. (Tisch and Wallace 1994: 162)

Gender violence: Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threat of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. (United Nations 1993)

General strike: A strike that is not limited to one trade or industry, but involves several, and is sufficiently widespread to paralyze the economy. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)

Genocide:

1. Any of the following acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, such as: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. (UN 1948 Convention on Genocide).

2. The attempt to systematically destroy, in whole or in part, a group of people on the basis of their identification with a communal, political, or politicized group, such as nation, ethnicity, language, religion, disability, caste, clan, sexual identity, class, ideology, culture, etc. This destruction is brought about by policies implemented by the political leadership of one group against another, including outright killing of the members of that group or indirect extermination of the group by depriving it of the means to sustain life. While in the legal sense (i.e., the UN Convention on Genocide) the massacre of, say, a village could constitute a genocide, in the popular consciousness the term refers to the destruction of a group on a very large scale, such as the massive slaughters that occurred in Rwanda, Cambodia, and Nazi-occupied territories. Confusion over the legal and popular senses of the term is quite common and can be problematic. For example, it has been argued that linking the deaths of 500 people to the term "genocide" can be misleading, inflammatory, or diminish its impact as an "early warning" for further slaughter. While the UN Convention on Genocide also includes actions such as forced sterilization or forced removal of the children of a group, in the common sense the term "genocide" refers to directly bringing about the deaths of the targeted group. Actions such as past American policies to sterilize Amerindian women and force children to attend boarding schools where their traditional culture and language was banned are more commonly termed "cultural genocide" or "ethnocide."

Gerrymander: Apportionment of electoral districts so as to give the political party in power an advantage in elections. Gerrymandering is usually accomplished by spreading out the favored party's electorate to enable it to win by a light majority in many districts. This device often produces electoral districts of curious shapes. The term originated in 1812, when Republican governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts signed a bill giving his party such an advantage. One electoral district was shaped so fantastically that it was compared to a salamander, and from that the term gerrymander was coined. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Ghetto: The term ghetto is applied, often derogatorily, to poor crowded urban areas inhabited primarily by minorities. It was originally applied to a section of a European town or city within which Jews were compelled by law to live. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)

Globalization: The increasing integration of national economies into expanding international markets. (Todaro 1997: 695)

Good governance:

1. Efficient, accountable management by the public sector and a predictable and transparent policy framework critical to the efficiency of markets and governments, hence to economic development. (World Bank 1992: 5)

2. Technical competence and expertise; organizational effectiveness; accountability; rule of law; transparency and open information systems. (TIID, 1997)

Governance: A government’s ability to govern; that is, to provide the public goods that cannot be provided by other institutions, to protect citizens, and to develop socially appropriate and responsive policies. The current emphasis on the importance of effective governance to development comes partly from a realization of the vital role of government in creating the physical, legal, and social infrastructure that permits markets to function, private firms to operate, and community-service organizations to flourish. (TIID 1997)

Grassroots: People or society at a local level rather than at the center of major political activity. (Houghton Mifflin Company 1982: 573)

Grievance: In the context of internal conflict, grievance refers to widely shared dissatisfaction among group members about their cultural, political and/or economic standing vis-à-vis dominant factions. (Gurr and Haxton, 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)

Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of output of goods and services produced by an economy during a specified period, by both residents and non-residents, regardless of its allocation to domestic and foreign uses. (UNDP 1998: 218)

Guerrilla warfare:

1. Military and paramilitary operations conducted in enemy-held or hostile territory by irregular, predominantly indigenous forces. (US DOD: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/)

2. Irregular, usually protracted, warfare by non-uniformed combatants not connected to large (formal) military organization. Guerrilla (Spanish term for 'small war') fighters often avoid direct clashes with regular government forces, engaging in one or several of the following tactics: partisan warfare behind enemy lines, hit-and-run operations, sabotage, ambush, urban terrorism. Violations of laws of war and criminal activities are common and often prevent guerrilla groups from gaining the moral high ground which could induce the people (or minority group they purport to represent) to join forces. (Parkinson, 1979; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

Head of government  The person in effective charge of the executive branch of government; the prime minister in a parliamentary system. (Thomas Learning 2000: http://polisci.nelson.com/glossary.html)

Health expenditures: Expenditures on primary health care including public health, hospitals, health centers and clinics, health insurance schemes and family planning. (UNDP 1998: 218)

Health services access: The percentage of population that can reach appropriate local health services on foot or by local means of transportation in no more than one hour. (UNDP 1998: 218)

Hidden unemployment: A situation in which labor is fully employed but is unproductive because the workers are incapacitated, sick, uneducated, hungry, unmotivated, or using unsuitable tools in their tasks. (Todaro 1997: 697)

Human capital:

1. A general term for the practical knowledge, acquired skills and learned abilities that make an individual potentially productive. The term was coined to draw a useful illustrative analogy between investing resources that increase the stock of ordinary physical capital (tools, machines, buildings etc.) and those that increase the productivity of labor. "Investing" in the education or training of labor is the means of accomplishing the general objective of higher productivity. (Johnson 1994-2000: http://www.duc.auburn.edu/~johnspm/glossind.html)

2. Productive investments embodied in human persons. These includes skills, abilities, ideals, and health resulting from expenditures on education, on-the-job training programs, and medical care. (Todaro 1997: 697)

Human resource development: Productive investment in people (training, education, etc.) that enhances their skills and abilities. (Tisch and Wallace 1994: 162)

Human rights:

1. This term refers to a range of rights and freedoms that are or should be universal to all individuals. These rights are sometimes understood in terms of basic political rights and civil liberties, such as freedom of expression, protection from arbitrary arrest or detention, a fair and impartial judicial system, and protection from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment. However, there is no general agreement on what constitutes a “human right” nor the relative value of its components. These rights have been more broadly defined to include a range of individual, cultural, and economic rights necessary to enable a life of freedom and dignity. In addition, the women’s movement has campaigned to address gender issues (such as domestic violence, freedom to choose or leave a partner, child marriage, and female cutting) more explicitly within a human rights framework.

2. Human rights are generally classified into three categories, namely the "first generation" of civil and political rights, supplemented by a "second generation" of economic, social, and cultural rights, and now a "third generation" of rights that underscores the right to development and to share in the fruits of the extraction of the common natural heritage of mankind. (Conteh-Morgan, 1994: 69-88)

Human security:

1. A fundamental departure from orthodox security analysis in which human beings and their complex social and economic relations are the primary referent object rather than the state. Thus, the main focus and starting point is understanding security in terms of the real-life everyday experiences of humanity rather than the experiences of territorially discrete sovereign states. (Thomas 1999: 1)

2. Safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease, and repression, as well as protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life –whether in homes, jobs or communities. Such threats can exist at all levels of national income and development. (UNDP 1994: 23)

3. An underlying condition for sustainable human development. It results from the social, psychological, economic, and political aspects of human life that in times of acute crisis or chronic deprivation protect the survival of individuals, support individual and group capacities to attain minimally adequate standards of living, and promote constructive group attachment and continuity through time. Its key measurable components can be summarized as: a sustainable sense of home; constructive social and family networks; and an acceptance of the past and a positive grasp of the future. (Leaning and Arie 2000: http://www.certi.org/publications/policy/human%20security-4.htm)

Humanitarian emergency:

1. Situations in which large numbers of people are dependent on humanitarian assistance from sources external to their own society and/or are in need of physical protection in order to have access to subsistence or external assistance. (US Mission to the United Nations 1996; cited by Harff and Gurr 1997: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/pubs.htm)

2. A profound social crisis in which a large number of people die and suffer from war, disease, hunger and displacement owing to man-made and natural disasters, while some others may benefit from it. (Vayrynen 1996; cited by Harff and Gurr 1997: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/pubs.htm)

Humanitarian intervention: Reliance on force for the justifiable purpose of protecting the inhabitants of another state from treatment that is arbitrary and persistently abusive. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 190)

Hyperinflation: Extremely rapid or "run-away" inflation. The precise boundary line between "ordinary"